---
Title: Exzerpte aus Lewis Henry Morgan, „Ancient Society“ (1880–1881)
Description: Marx’ Exzerpte und Bemerkungen zu L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society (London 1877).
Author: Karl Marx
URL: https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/originales/1880%20Exzerpte%20aus%20Lewis%20Henry%20Morgan%2C%20Ancient%20Society
---


*Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).[^lic] [Traducción al español](https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/1880%20Extractos%20de%20Lewis%20Henry%20Morgan%2C%20La%20sociedad%20antigua)*

## Lewis H. Morgan: „Ancient Society“. London 1877.

## A) Growth of intelligence through inventions and discoveries.

### Part I. Ch. I.

#### I) Period of savagery.

1) *Lower Status.* Infancy of human race: lives in its original restricted habitat; *subsists upon fruits and nuts*; in this period *commencement of articulate speech*; ends with *acquisition of fish subsistence* and *knowledge of use of fire*. No tribes in this condition to be found in *historical period of mankind*.

2) *Middle Status:* commences mit *fish subsistence* and *use of fire*. Mankind spreads from original habitat over greater portion of earth’s surface. Such tribes existing still, f.i. the *Australians* and *greater part of the Polynesians*, when discovered.

3) *Upper Status:* Commences with *invention of bow and arrow*, ends with invention *of art of pottery*. In this state the *Athapascan tribes* of *the Hudson’s Bay Territory*, the tribes of the *valley of Columbia* u. certain *coast tribes of North* and *South America*; with relation to the time of their discovery.

#### II) Period of Barbarism.

1) *Lower Status* begins with *art of Pottery*. Für den folgenden Status (middle) comes in Betracht the *unequal endowment of the 2 hemispheres*, western and eastern; aber to *adopt equivalents*. In *Eastern hemisphere* the *domestication of animals*, in the *Western* the *cultivation of Maize and plants by irrigation*, zugleich mit *use of adobe-brick* and *stone in house building*. Im lower status z. B. the *Indian Tribes of the U. St. east of the Missouri river*, and *such tribes* of *Europe and Asia* practising *pottery*, but were without *domesticated animals*.

2) *Middle Status.* Commences in Eastern sphere with *domestication of animals*, in the *Western* with cultivation by irrigation and the use of adobe-brick and stone in architecture; ends with *the process of smelting iron ore*. In this state f.i. the *village Indians of New Mexico, Mexico, Central America, Peru* u. *tribes* in *the Eastern hemisphere* possessing domestic animals, but *without knowledge of iron*. *Ancient Britons* belong hierhin; they knew the *use of iron* and other arts of life – far beyond the state of development of their domestic institutions – thanks *to the vicinity of more advanced continental tribes*.

3) *Upper Status.* Commences with the smelting of *Iron Ore, use of iron tools* etc, ends with the *invention of a phonetic alphabet*, and the use of writing in literary composition. In the *upper Status of Barbarism* the *Grecian tribes of homeric ages*, *Italian tribes before the founding of Rome* (?), the *German tribes of Caesar’s time*.

#### III. Period of Civilization.

Begins with *phonetic alphabet* and production of literary records; as *equivalent* – *hiperoglyphical writing upon stone*.

##### Ueber Pottery specially to II Period. (1)

*Flint and stone implements* älter als *pottery*, found frequently in ancient repositories *ohne pottery*. Eh diese erfunden, commencement of *village life*, with some degree of control over subsistence, *wooden vessels* u. *ustensils, finger weaving* with *filaments of bark, basket making* u. *bow u. arrow* vor appearance of pottery. Diese nicht z. B. bei den *Athapascans*, the *tribes of California* u. of the *valley of Columbia*. It was unknown in *Polynesia* (except the islands of the *Tongans u. Fijians*), in *Australia, California* u. the Hudsons’s Bay Territory. *Tylor* bemerkt, dass die „*art of weaving* unknown in most of the *islands away from Asia*“ u. „in *most* of the *South Sea islands there was no knowledge of pottery*.“ *Flint* and *stone implements* gave the *canoe, wooden vessels* and *ustensils*, and ultimately *timber and plank* in house architecture. Boiling of food – vor pottery – rudely accomplished in *baskets coated with clay*, and in *ground cavities lined with skin, the boiling being effected with heated stones*.

The *village Indians* – wie die *Zuñians, the Azteks* u. die *Cholulans* (in *Period II, (2) state*) manufactured *pottery* in large quantities, and in many forms of great excellence; the partially *Village Indians* of the U. St. in Period II (1) wie die *Iroquois, Choctas, Cherokees* made it in smaller quantities u. limited number of forms.

Goguet – in last century – relates of Capt. Gonneville visiting the Southeast coast of South America in 1503, that he found „their *household ustensils* of wood, even their boiling pots, but plastered with a *kind of clay*, a good finger thick, which prevented the fire from burning them“ u. nach *Goguet* daubed die wooden combustible vessels mit clay to protect them from fire, till *they found that clay alone would answer the purpose*, and *„thus the art of pottery came into the world.“*

Nach *Prof. E. T. Cox* of Indianapolis, the analyses of „ancient pottery“ „belonging to the *mound-builders age*, are composed of *alluvial clay and sand*, or a mixture of the former with pulverized freshwater shells.“

---

##### Development in different tribes u. families.

Einige so geographisch isolirt, dass sie selbstständig die verschiednen Phasen durchlaufen; andre adulterated durch *external influence*. So *Africa* was u. is an *ethnical chaos of savagery* u. *barbarism*; *Australia u. Polynesia* were in savagery, pure and simple.

The *Indian family of America* – unterscheidet sich dadurch v. jeder andern existirenden – stellten *condition* of mankind in *three successive ethnical periods* dar. When discovered, stellten sie jede der 3 conditions dar u. namentlich *lower u. middle status of barbarism* more elaborate u. complete als irgend andre portion of mankind. Die *far Northern Indians* u. *some of the coast tribes of North and Southamerica* were in the *Upper Status of Savagery*;

the partially *Village Indians east of the Mississippi* were in the *Lower Status of Barbarism*,

the v*illage Indians of North and South America* were in the *Middle Status*.

---

### Part I. Ch. II. Arts of subsistence.

Upon their (men’s) skill in this direction – *arts of subsistence* – the whole *question of human supremacy on the earth* depended. Mankind are the only beings who may be said *to have gained an absolute control* (?!) over the production of food. (19) the great epochs of human progress – identified, more or less directly, with the *enlargement of the sources of subsistence*. (l.c.)

1) *natural subsistence upon fruits or roots on a restricted habitat.* Primitive period; invention of language. Such kind of subsistence unterstellt a tropical or subtropical climate. Fruit and nutbearing forests under a tropical sun. (20) Were at least partially *tree-livers* (auf Bäumen lebend). (*Lucret. de rerum natura* lib. V) [l.c.]

2) *fish subsistence*; first *artificial* food, not fully available without cooking; *fire* first utilized for this purpose. – ⦗*hunt for game* too precarious ever to have formed an exclusive means of human support.⦘ Upon this species of food mankind became independent of climate and locality; by *following the shores of the seas and lakes*, and the *courses of rivers* could, while in the savage state, spread over the greater portion of the earth’s surface. Of the fact of these migrations … abundant evidence in the remains of flint and stone implements found upon all the continents. In Interval bis zur nächsten period important *increase* in the *variety and amount of food*; *bread roots* z. B. cooked in ground ovens; *permanent addition of game* through *improved weapons*, especially the *bow and arrow*; dies kam *nach spear* u. *war club*; gab the first deadly weapon for the hunt, appeared late in savagery; Bezeichnet *(Bogen u. Pfeil)* the *upper status of savagery*, was *iron sword* to barbarism, *firearms* to the period of civilization. *bow u. arrow* were *unknown* to the *Polynesians* in general, and to the *Australians*. (21) (22)

In Folge der precarious nature of all *these sources of food, outside* of *the great fish areas, cannibalism* became the resort of mankind. The *ancient universality of this practice* is being gradually demonstrated. (22)

3) *Farinaceous food through cultivation.*

Die *cultivation of cereals* scheint unbekannt gewesen zu sein im *lower* u. *bis nah zum Ende des middle status of barbarism* … in der *Oestlichen Hemisphäre den tribes of Asia u. Europe*. Dagegen im *Lower Status of barbarism* in der *Westlichen Hemisphäre* bekannt den *American aborigines*; sie hatten *horticulture*.

Beide Hemisphären ungleich endowed by nature: die *Oestliche* besass *alle Thiere*, save one, *adapted to domestication* u. a *majority of cereals*; the *Western* had *one cereal (Maize)* fit for cultivation, but that the best. Gave the advantage of condition in this period den American aborigines. Aber als die most advanced Eastern tribes, *at the commencement of the middle period of barbarism*, had *domesticated animals giving meat and milk*, without a knowledge of the cereals, ihre condition much superior to that of the American aborigines mit *maize u. plants*, aber *ohne domesticated animals*. Mit der *domestication of animals* scheint *differentiation der Semitic u. Aryan families* heraus aus der Masse der Barbaren begonnen zu haben.

Dass die *discovery* u. *cultivation of cereals* durch die Aryan family *später als domestication von animals* beweisen *common terms for these animals* in the *several dialects* der Aryan language, and *no common terms for cereals* or *cultivated plants*. *Ζέα* (einziges dieser Worte), philologisch = Sanskrit *yavas* (bedeutet in Indian *barley*, in *Greek* „spelt“).

*Horticulture preceded field culture*, as the *garden (hortus)* das field (ager); the latter *implies* boundaries, the former signifies directly an *„inclosed field“*. ⦗*hortus* an *inclosed place for plants*, hence a garden; from the same root *cohors* (auch *cors*, in einigen Mscpt. *chors*) a *yard*, a place walled round, a court, (auch cattle-yard); cf. *gr. χόρτος*, *χορός*; lat. *hortus*; *german. garten*, engl. *garden, yard* (*ital. corte, french* cour, engl. *court*) (*ital. giardino, sp. u. french* jardin)[⦘]

*Tillage* muss aber älter sein als der *inclosed garden*; *erst: tillage of patches* of *open alluvial land*, 2) *enclosed space of gardens*, 3) *field* by means of the *plow drawn by animal power*. Ob die Cultur solcher plants wie *pea, bean, turnip, parsnip, beet, squash* (Kürbisartige Frucht bei Massachusetts Indians) u. *melon*, one or more of them, preceded the cultivation of the cereals, wissen wir nicht. Einige v. diesen haben common terms in Latin u. Greek, aber keines davon common term mit Sanskrit.

*Horticulture* in Östlicher Hemisphere seems to have originated more in the *necessities of the domestic animals* than in those of mankind. Commences in the Western hemisphere mit *Maize*; led in America to *localization and village life*; tended bes. under the *village Indians* to take the place of fish and game. Von cereals u. cultivated plants mankind obtained their first impression of the possibility of an abundance of food. – Mit farinaceous food verschwindet cannibalism; it survived in war, practised by war parties, unter den American aborigines in the *Middle Status of barbarism*, z. B. unter *Iroquois* u. *Azteks*; but the general practice had disappeared. (Wurde in savagery practicirt upon *captured enemies* u. in times of famine upon friends and kindred)

4) *Meat and Milk Subsistence. Absence of animals, adapted to domestication* in *Westlicher Hemisphäre* ausser *Llama*. Die early *Span. writers* speak of a *„dumb dog“ found domesticated* in the *West Indian Islands*, ditto in *Mexico u. Central America*; sprechen auch von *poultry* u. *turkeys* on the American continent; the *aborigines had domesticated the turkey* u. die *Nahuatlac tribes some species of wild fowl*.

Diese Differenz u. die specific differences in the cereals beider Hemisphären producirten essential difference with *that portion* ihrer inhabitants who had *attained to the Middle Status of Barbarism*.

The domestication of animals provided a permanent meat and milk subsistence; tribes, die sie besassen, differentiated v. der mass of other barbarians. Den *Village Indians* ungünstig the limitation upon an essential species of food; haben *inferior size of the brain* verglichen mit den *Indians in the Lower Status of Barbarism*.

Vorzüge der *Aryan u. Semitic families* durch maintenance in numbers of domestic animals. Die Greeks milked their *sheep* as well as their cows u. goats. (*Ilias* IV, 433) Aryans to noch greater extent als Semites.

*Domestication of animals* – in östl. Hemisphäre – gradually introduced *pastoral life*, upon *the plains of the Euphrates* and of *India* u. den *steppes of Asia*; on the confines of one or the other of which the domestication of animals first accomplished. Sie kamen so von *regions*, *die, so weit entfernt die cradle lands der human race zu sein*, were areas they would *not have occupied as savages or barbarians in the Lower Status of barbarism, to whom forest areas were natural homes*. Nachdem sie sich gewöhnt an pastoral life, unmöglich for either of these families to *reenter the forest areas of Western Asia and of Europe with their flocks u. herds*, without first learning *to cultivate some of the cereals* with which to subsist the latter *at a distance from the grass plains*. Sehr probable *that the cultivation of the cereals originated in the necessities of the domestic animals*, and in connection with these western migrations; and that the use of farinaceous food by these tribes was a consequence.

In der *Western Hemisphere* die aborigines advanced generally into the *Lower Status of Barbarism*, u. ein Theil davon in *Middle Status* ohne domestic animals, *ausser Llama in Peru* u. upon a *single cereal, maize*, mit den adjuncts of *bean, squash* u. *tobacco* u. in some areas *cacao, cotton* u. *Pepper. „Maize“* from its *growth in the hill* – which favoured direct cultivation – from its *useableness both green and ripe*, from its *abundant yield* u. *nutritive properties*, was a richer endowment in aid of early human progress als all other cereals together; hence remarkable progress der American aborigines *ohne domestic animals*; the *Peruvians produced bronze*, which stands next to the *process of smelting iron ore*.

5) *Unlimited subsistence through field agriculture.*

The *domestic animals* supplemented human muscle with animal power, new factor of the highest value. Später *production of iron* gab *Pflug mit an iron point* u. a better *spade u. axe*. Mit diesen u. aus der früheren horticulture, came *field agriculture* u. damit *zuerst unlimited subsistence*. Der *plow drawn by animal power*; damit entsprang thoughts of *reducing the forest* and *bringing wide fields into cultivation*. *(Lucret. v. 1369)*. *Dense population in limited areas became possible.* Vor field agriculture schwerlich dass ½ Million Menschen held together u. developed under one government in any part of the earth. Wo exceptions, they must have resulted *from pastoral life on the plains* od. von *horticulture improved by irrigation*, under peculiar u. exceptional condition.

Morgan theilt die Familienformationen (p. 27, 28) ein in:

1) *Consanguine family: intermarriage of brothers and sisters in a group*; darauf founded (u. dient jetzt als *evidence davon*) das *Malayan system* *[of]* *consanguinity*.

2) *Punaluan family:* name derived von der *Hawaiian* relationship of *Punalua*. Founded upon the *intermarriage of several brothers to each other’s wives in a group; and of several sisters to each other’s husbands in a group*. „Brother“ includes here the first, second, third, and even more remote cousins, all considered as brothers; u. „sister“ includes first, 2<sup>nd</sup>, 3<sup>d</sup> and even more remote female cousins, all sisters to each other. Auf this form of family gegründet the *Turanian* u. *Ganowánian systems of consanguinity*. Beide Familienformen gehören zu *period of savagery*.

3) The Syndyasmian family: *von συνδυάζω* ⦗(*paaren* (*συνδυάς* gepaart. *Eur.*) *Passiv: sich paaren od. begatten.* *Plato, Plutarch*⦘ ⦗*συνδυασμός* Paarung, Verbindung Zweier. *Plutarch.*⦘ Founded *upon the pairing of a male and a female* under the form of marriage, aber *ohne an exclusive cohabitation*; ist germ der Monogamian family. Divorce or separation at the option of both husband u. wife. Diese Familienform gründet *kein besondres Verwandtschaftssystem*.

4) *The Patriarchal family:* founded upon the *marriage of one man to several women*. In *Hebrew pastoral tribes* the *chiefs and principal men* practised polygamy. Little influence on mankind for want of universality.

5) *Monogamian family: marriage of one man with one woman, with an exclusive cohabitation*; preeminently the *family of civilized society, essentially modern*. Auf diese Familienform gegründet *an independent system of consanguinity*.

---

## Part III.

### Ch. I. The ancient family.

⦗Allerältestes: *Hordenwesen mit promiscuity*; no family; hier kann nur *Mutterrecht* irgendwelche Rolle spielen.⦘

Die *Verwandtschaftssysteme* gebaut auf *different types of family*; ihrerseits wieder *evidence* für Existenz der letzteren, die sie überleben.

Das *älteste system of consanguinity*, bis jetzt entdeckt, found unter den *Polynesians*, wovon die *Hawaiian* als typical genommen; Morgan nennts das *Malayan system*. Hier alle consanguinei fallen unter die relationship: *parent, child, grandparent, grandchild, brother u. sister*; keine andre *Blutverwandtschaft*; ausserdem die *marriage relationships*. Dies system came in with the *»consanguine« family form* u. beweist deren alte Existenz; das System prevailed sehr allgemein unter den *Polynesians*, obgleich die family unter ihnen übergegangen aus *consanguine form in punaluan*. Letztere von ersterer nicht genug *verschieden*, um eine *Modification* des auf erstere gegründeten Verwandtschaftssystems zu produciren. *Intermarriage zwischen brothers u. sisters* noch nicht ganz verschwunden aus den *Sandwichinseln*, als amerik. Missionäre sich vor 50 Jahren dort etablirten. Muss auch in *Asien* geherrscht haben, weil es die Basis des dort noch existirenden *Turanian system*.

*Turanian system* war allgemein unter den *nordamerik. aborigines* u. hinreichend auch in *Südamerika* nachgewiesen, found in parts *of Africa*, wo jedoch unter dessen tribes Verwandtschaftssystem sich mehr dem Malayan nähert. *Turanisches System* noch prevailing in *Südindien* unter den Hindus der *Dravidian language* u., in modificirter Form in *Nordindien* unter den Hindus sprechend *dialects der Gaura language*; ebenso in *Australien* in partially developed form. In den *principal tribes der Turanian* u. *Ganowánian* *families* producirt durch *punaluan marriage in the group* u. die *organization into gentes*, tending to repress consanguine marriages, by *prohibition of intermarriage in the gens*, wodurch [es] *own brothers u. sisters von marriage relation ausschloss*.

The *Turanian system* recognizes all the relationships known under the *Aryan system*, aber auch diesem unbekannte. In familiar u. formal salutation the people address each other *by the term of relationship*, nie *by the personal name*; wo keine relationship exists, durch *„my friend“*.

Bei Entdeckung der American aborigines war die *family* aus der *punaluan* in ihre *syndyasmian form* übergegangen; so dass die *relationships recognized by the system of consanguinity* in zahlreichen Fällen *nicht die waren die wirklich in der syndyasmian family* existirten; aber ebenso hatte *Malayan system of consanguinity* überdauert *den Uebergang der consanguine family in die Punaluan*. Gradeso überdauerte *Turanian system of consang*. den Uebergang der *punaluan family* in die *syndyasmian*. Die *Familienform* variirt schneller als *systems of consanguinity which follow to record the family relationships*. Die *organization in gentes* war nöthig to change the *Malayan system* in das *Turanian*; *property in the concrete*, with its *rights of ownership u. inheritance*, war nöthig, zusammen *mit der monogamian family which it created*, to overthrow the *Turanian system* of consanguinity and substitute the *Aryan*.

The *Semitic, Aryan, od. Uralian system* of consanguinity – defining the *relationships in the monogamian family* – was nicht *based upon the Turanian system*, wie dies war upon the *Malayan*, sondern *superseded it* among *civilized* nations.

Von den 5 family forms haben 4 existed in der *historic period*; nur die consanguine disappeared; can aber be deduced v. dem *Malayan system of consanguinity*.

*Marriage between single pairs* had existed from the older period of barbarism, under *the form of pairing* during the pleasure of the parties; wurde stabiler mit *advance of society*, mit progress durch inventions and discoveries into higher successive conditions. Man began to exact fidelity from the wife, under savage penalties, but he claimed exemption for himself. So unter *den Homeric Greeks*. Fortschritt v. *Homerisch. Zeitalter bis dem von Pericles*, with its gradual *settlement into a defined institution*. So moderne Familie höher als griech. u. röm.; *Geschichte* durchgemacht in histor. Zeit von 3000 Jahren durch die *monogamische Familie u. Ehe*. Der Fortschritt des alten complicirten *»conjugal« system* besteht in seiner successive *reduction*, bis reduced to *zero* in der monogamian family. *Jeder der 5 family types belongs to conditions of society entirely dissimilar*. Das *Turanian system of consanguinity*, which *records the relationships in punaluan family*, blieb wesentlich unverändert bis zur *Etablirung der monogamian family*, when *it became almost totally untrue to the nature of descents, and even a scandal upon monogamy*. z. B. unter dem *Malayan system* nennt ein Mann seines Bruders Sohn *seinen Sohn*, weil seines Bruders Frau auch seine Frau ist; u. *seiner Schwester Sohn* ist auch *sein Sohn*, weil seine Schwester auch *seine Frau* ist. Unter dem Turanian system ist seines Bruder’s Sohn *immer noch sein Sohn*, aus demselben Grund, aber *seiner Schwester Sohn* ist jetzt *sein Neffe*, weil under der *gentile organization seine Schwester aufgehört hat*, seine Frau zu sein. *Unter den Iroquois*, wo die family syndyasmian ist, nennt ein Mann seines Bruder’s Sohn seinen Sohn, obgleich *seines Bruder’s Frau* aufgehört hat, *seine Frau* zu sein u. so selbe Incongruenz mit grosser Anzahl andrer relationships, die der *existing form of marriage* aufgehört haben zu entsprechen. *Das System hat die Gebräuche überlebt, worin es entsprang* u. *erhält sich fort unter ihnen*, obgleich in the main *untrue*, für *descents as they now exist*. Monogamy kam auf to *assure the paternity of children* and *the legitimacy of heirs*. Turanian system konnte durch keine Reform ihm adaptirt werden; stand in schreiendem Gegensatz zur Monogamie; das System ward dropped; aber die *descriptive method*, stets employed durch die Turanian tribes when they wished to make a *given relationship specific*, wurde *substituted*. They fell back upon the bare facts of consanguinity u. described the relationship of each person by *a combination of the primary terms*; sagten so: *Bruder’s Sohn, Bruder’s grandson; father’s brother; father’s brother’s son*; each phrase described a person, leaving the relationship a matter of implication; so bei den *arischen Nationen*, in der ältesten Form bei den *Griechischen, latein., sanskritischen, celtischen*, *semitischen tribes.* *(Old testament, Genealogies)* Traces des Turanian system unter den *arischen u. semit. nations* down to the historical period, aber essentially uprooted, Descriptive substituted in its place.

Jedes der *systems of consanguinity* expresses the *actual relationships existing in the family* at the time of its establishment. Die *relations* v. *Mutter u. Kind, Bruder u. Schwester, Grossmutter u. grandchild* were stets versicherbar (seit Etablirung irgend einer Form von family), aber nicht *die von Vater u. Kind, Grossvater u. grandchild*; letzteres nur (mindestens officiell?) versicherbar in Monogamie.

Die *systems of consanguinity* sind *classificatory* oder aber *descriptive*. Unter dem ersten System *consanguinei »classified«* into *categories* unabhängig von ihrer *Nähe od. Entfernung in degree von Ego*; der selbe *term of relationship* applied to *all the persons in the same category*. z. B. *meine eignen Brüder* u. die *Söhne von den Brüdern meines Vaters* sind alle gleichmässig *meine Brüder; meine eignen Schwestern* u. die *Töchter der Schwestern meiner Mutter* sind alle gleichmässig *meine Schwestern*; such is the classification in *Malayan u. Turanian systems*. Im *descriptiven System* dagegen die consanguinei bezeichnet durch die *primary terms of relationship* od. *combination dieser terms*, wodurch die relationship jeder Person *specific* gemacht. So im *Aryan, Semitic od. Uralian system*, which came in with monogamy; später introducirt a small amount of classification durch *inventions of common terms*, aber die earliest *form of the system – the Erse* u. *Scandinavian* typical – *purely descriptive*. Der radicale Unterschied der Systeme resulted von *plural marriages in the group* in one case, *from single marriages* between single pairs in the other.

*Relationships* zweifach: 1) *by consanguinity* or *blood*; diese selbst *zweifach*, a) *lineal* u. b) *collateral*; a) *lineal* ist die connection unter Persons wovon *eine von der andern abstammt*; b) *collateral* ist sie, wo *persons descend von common ancestors*, aber nicht von einander. 2) by *affinity or marriage*; *marriage relationships* exist by custom. Wo marriage between single pairs, *each person* the *Ego* from whom the degree of relationship of each person is reckoned u. to whom it returns. His position in the *lineal line*, which *line is vertical*. Upon it, above and below him, *ancestors and descendants* in direct series from father to son; these persons together constitute the *right lineal male line*. Out of this *trunk line* emerge the several *collateral lines*, male and female, numbered outwardly; in einfachster Form with one brother and one sister etc:

| *1<sup>st</sup> collateral line:* | *male*, | my *brother* and his descendants; | *female:* | my *sister* and her descendants. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *2<sup>nd</sup> coll. line:* | *male*, | my *father’s brother* and his descendants; | *female:* | *my father’s sister* u. her descendants. |
|  | *male*, | my *mother’s brother* and his descendants; | *female:* | my *mother’s sister* und her descendants. |
| *3<sup>d</sup> coll. line:* | on *the father’s side: male:* | my *grandfather’s brother* and his descendants; | *female:* | *my grand father’s sister* and her descendants. |
|  | on *the mother’s side*: | my *grandmother’s brother* and his descendants; | *female:* | *my grandmother’s sister* and her descendants. |
| *4<sup>th</sup> coll. line:* | *great grandfather’s brother and sister* | and their respective descendants. |  |  |
|  | *great grandmother’s brother and sister* | and … ditto … ditto. |  |  |
| *5<sup>th</sup> coll. line:* | *great-great grandfather’s brother and sister* | and their respective descendants. |  |  |
|  | *great-great-grandmothers brother and sister* | and … *ditto* … *ditto*. |  |  |

Habe ich *several brothers u. sisters*, so constituiren sie mit ihren descendants *so many independent lines*, aber zusammen bilden sie my *first collateral line in 2 branches, a male and a female* etc etc.

Dies Zeug einfach summirt durch die *Roman civilians* ⦗*Pandects* lib. XXXVIII, title X. *De gradibus, et adfinibus et nominibus eorum*; u. *Institutes of Justinian lib. III, title VI: De gradibus cognationis*⦘; adoptirt durch principal European nations.

*Römer* geben bes. Namen:

*patruus* (for *uncle* on father’s side) u. *amita* (for *aunt* on father’s side);

*avunculus* (*uncle* on *mother’s* side) u. *matertera* (for *aunt* on mother’s side)

*avus*, grandfather, giebt *avunculus* (a little grandfather); *Matertera* soll herkommen v. *mater* u. *altera* = another mother. – Die *Erse, Scandinavian* u. *Slavonic* haben nicht diese röm. method of description angenommen.

The 2 radical forms – the *classificatory* u. the *descriptive yield nearly the exact line of demarcation between the barbarous* u. *civilized nations*.

Powerful influences existed to *perpetuate the systems of consanguinity* after the conditions *under which each originated had been modified or had altogether disappeared*.

In so complicated system wie das *Turanian* entwickelte sich natürlich *divergence in minor particulars*. Das *system of consanguinity* des *Tamil people* of *South India* u. das der *Seneca-Iroquois*, of New York, sind *noch identisch* through 200 relationships; a *modified form of the system* – standing alone – that of the *Hindi, Bengali, Marâthi* u. other people of *North India*, ist combination der *Aryan u. Turanian systems*. A civilized people, the *Brahmins*, coalesced with a barbarous stock, lost their language in the new vernaculars named, which retain the grammatical structure of the aboriginal speech, wozu das Sanskrit 90% of its vocables gab. *Ihre 2 systems of consanguinity* came into collision, the one founded on *monogamy or syndyasmy* u. the *other upon plural marriages in the group*.

Unter den *Indian tribes von North America* the *family syndyasmian*; aber lebten generally in *joint-tenement houses* u. *practised communism within the household*. Je mehr wir niedersteigen in der direction der *punaluan* u. *consanguine families*, the *household group becomes larger*, with more persons crowded together in the same apartment. The coast *tribes in Venezuela*, wo die family punaluan gewesen zu sein scheint, are represented by the Spanish discoverers *(Herrera’s*: *History of America)* as living in *bell-shaped houses, each containing 160 persons. Husbands u. wives lived together in a group in the same house*.

### Part III. Ch. II. The Consanguine Family.

Existirt *in primitivster Form* nicht mehr selbst unter lowest savages. Sie ist aber bewiesen durch a *system of consanguinity and affinity* welches für zahllose Jahrhunderte überlebt hat the marriage customs in which it originated: das *Malayan system*; it defines the relationships wie sie *nur in einer consanguine family* existiren konnten; es besitzt an antiquity of unknown duration; die *inhabitants of Polynesia* included in this system, obgleich die eigentlichen *Malays* es in einigen Punkten modificirt haben. *Hawaiian u. Rotuman forms* typical; the simplest, therefore the oldest. Alle consanguinei, near u. remote, *classified* under 5 categories:

| *1<sup>st</sup> category:* | *Ego, my brothers u. sisters*, my *first, second and more remote male and female cousins*, are all *without distinction* my *brothers and sisters*. (word *cousin* here used in our sense, the relationship being unknown in Polynesia.[)] |
|---|---|
| *2<sup>t</sup> category:* | My *father and mother, together with their brothers and sisters*, and *their first, second, and more remote cousins* are all *my parents*. |
| *3<sup>t</sup> category:* | My *grandfathers* and *grandmothers*, on father’s side and mother’s side, with their *brothers and sisters*, and their several cousins, are my *grandparents*. |
| *4<sup>t</sup> category:* | *my sons and daughters, with their several cousins*, are all *my children*. |
| *5<sup>t</sup> category:* | *my grandsons and granddaughters*, with their several cousins, are all *my grandchildren*. |
| Ferner: | all *the individuals of the same grade or category are brothers and sisters to each other*. |

The 5 categories or grades in the Malayan system appear auch in den *„Nine Grades of relations“* of the *Chinese* mit 2 additional ancestors u. 2 additional descendants.

The wives of my several brothers, own and collateral, *are my wives as well as theirs*; für die *female*, the husbands of her several sisters, own and collateral, are also her husbands.

The *several collateral lines* are brought *into and merged in the lineal line*, ascending as well as descending; so that the ancestors and descendants of my collateral brothers and sisters become mine as well as theirs.

All the *members of each grade are reduced to the same level* in their relationships, without regard to nearness or remoteness in numerical degrees. Auch bei *andren Polynesian* tribes – ausser Hawaians u. Rotumans – dies System; so unter den *Marquesas Islanders* u. den *Maoris of New Zealand*; den *Samoans, Kusaiens, King’s Mill Islanders of Micronesia*; zweifellos in every inhabited island of Pacific except where it verges upon the Turanian.

System based auf: *intermarriage zwischen own brothers and sisters, and gradually enfolding the collateral brothers and sisters as the range of the conjugal system widened*. In dieser consanguine family the *husbands* lived in *polygyny* u. die *wives in polyandry*. It would be difficult to *show any other possible beginning of the family in the primitive period*. All traces of it had not disappeared among the Hawaiians at the epoch of their discovery –

The system also founded upon *the intermarriage* of *own and collateral brothers and sisters in a group*.

The *husband* in diesem Sinn weiss nicht ob dies od. jenes Kind *sein* eignes Fabrikat; es ist *sein Kind*, weil das Kind einer *seiner* Frauen, die er mit seinen brothers, own od. collateral gemein hat. Die *Frau* kann dagegen ihre Kinder von denen ihrer sisters unterscheiden; sie wäre ihre *step-mother*; diese »Categorie« existirt aber nicht im System; ihrer Schwestern Kinder also *ihre* Kinder. Die *Kinder* dieser gemeinsamen Eltern könnten sich zwar von mütterlicher Seite unterscheiden, aber nicht von väterlicher: sind daher alle *Geschwister*.

The *marriage relationship* extended wherever the *relationship of brother and sister* was recognized to exist; each brother having as many wives as he had sisters, own or collateral, and each sister as many husbands as she had brothers, own or collateral.

Wherever the *relationship of wife* is found in the collateral line, that of husband must be recognized in the lineal, and vice versa.

Unter den *Kaffern v. Südafrika* die wives meiner *Cousins* – *father’s brother[’s] son, father’s sister’s son, mother’s brother[’s] son*, mother’s *sister’s son* – are alike my wives.

*The larger the group recognizing the marriage relation, the less the evil of close interbreeding.*

*1820* the American missions established in the *Sandwich islands*, were shocked at the sexual relations; they fanden dort die *punaluan family*, with own sisters and brothers not entirely excluded, the *males living* in *polygyny*, the *females* in *polyandry*; the people *had not attained the organization in gentes*. Unwahrscheinlich dass die *actual family* among the Hawaiians was as large as the group united in the marriage relation. *Necessity would compel its subdivision into smaller groups for the procurement of subsistence, and for mutual protection*; individuals passed wahrscheinlich at pleasure *from one of these subdivisions into another* in the punaluan as well as consanguine families, giving rise to that apparent desertion by husbands and wives of each other and by parents of their children, mentioned by Rev. Hiram Bingham. (Missionair, amerik., in Sandwich islands) *Communism in living* must have prevailed both in the consanguine and in the punaluan family als *requirement of their condition. It still prevails generally among savage and barbarous* tribes. ⦗each smaller family would be a miniature of the group.⦘

Ueber *Chinese System of 9 Grades* see *»Systems of consanguinity«* etc p. 415, p. 432.

In Plato’s *Timaeus* (Ch. II) all consanguinei in the Ideal Republic to fall into 5 categories, in which the women were to be in common as wives and the children in common as to parents. (sieh meine Ausgabe p. 705, erste Columne) Hier dieselben 5 primary grades of relations, Plato bekannt mit hellenischen u. pelasgischen traditions, reaching back in the region of barbarism etc. Seine *grades exact die der Hawaiians*.

Der *state of society indicated by the consanguine family* points to an *anterior condition* of *promiscuous intercourse* (in der *Horde*!)), trotz Darwin. (See *Descent of Man* II, 360) Sobald die *Horde* would break up *into smaller groups for subsistence*, it would fall von *promiscuity* into *consanguine families*, welches die first *»organized form of society«*.

### Part III. Ch. III. The Punaluan family.

Existed in *Europe, Asia, America* within the historical period, in *Polynesia* within the *present century*; widely prevailing *in the Status of Savagery*, remained in *some instances among tribes advanced into the Lower Status of barbarism*, u. im case der Britons, among tribes im *Middle Status of Barbarism*.

Geht hervor aus *consanguine family* durch *gradual exclusion of own brothers* and sisters *from the marriage relation* … Commencing in isolated cases, introduced partially at first, then becoming general, and finally universal among the advancing tribes, still in savagery … illustrates the operation of the principle of natural selection.

In dem *Australian class system* (sieh später) evident, that their primary object *the exclusion of own brothers and sisters* from the marriage relation, während (see the *descents* of *these classes p. 425*) the *collateral brothers and sisters were retained* in that relation. In der *Australian punaluan group* wie in der *Hawaiian* the *brotherhood of the husbands* formed the basis of the marriage relation of one group, and the *sisterhood of the wives* of the other … the *Australian organization into classes upon sex* – which gave birth to the punaluan group, which contained the germ of the gens – prevailed wahrscheinlich unter allen tribes of mankind who afterwards fell under the gentile organization. Vor der *organization into gentes*, which permanently excluded brothers and sisters from the marriage relation by an organic law, *letztere noch frequently involved in Punaluan family, wie bei den Hawaiians*, die keine organization in gentes noch das *Turanian system of consanguinity* hatten.

#### 1) Punaluan family:

*1860* said *Judge Lorin Andrews*, of Honolulu, in a letter accompanying a schedule of the Hawaiian system of consanguinity: „the *relationship of pŭnalŭa* is rather amphibious. It arose from the fact that 2 or more brothers with their wives, or two or more sisters with their husbands, were inclined to *possess each other* in common; but the modern use of the word is that of *dear friend*, or *intimate companion*.“ What Judge Andrews says they were inclined to do, and which may then have been a declining practice, their system of consanguinity proves to have been once *universal among them*. Weiter bezeugt durch die Missionäre. *(see p. 427, 428)* So schrieb Rev. *Artemus Bishop*, lately deceased, one of the oldest missionaries in these islands, der dem Morgan ebenfalls 1860 a *similar schedule* schickte: „This *confusion of relationships* is the result of the *ancient custom among relatives of the living together of husbands and wives in common*.“ Then *punaluan family group consists of*: one group: *several brothers and their wives*; other *group*: *several sisters with their husbands*; jede group including the *children* of the marriages.

Bei den *Hawaiians* a man calls his *wife’s sister his wife*; all the sisters of his wife, own as well as collateral, are also *his wives*. But the *husband of his wife’s sister* he calls *pŭnalŭa*, i.e. *his intimate companion*; and all the husbands of the several sisters of his wife the same. *They were jointly intermarried in the group.* Diese husbands waren probably *keine Brüder*, sonst would the *blood relationship* have prevailed über die *affineal*; *but their wives were sisters, own and collateral*; in such case the *sisterhood of the wives the basis upon which the group was formed*, and the *husbands stood to each other in the relation of pŭnalŭa*.

Die andre group rests upon the *brotherhood of the husbands*, and a woman calls her husband’s brother *her husband*; alle Brüder ihres Mannes, own and collateral, waren auch ihre husbands; but the *wife of her husband’s brother* stands to her in the relationship of *pŭnalŭa*. Diese wives generally nicht sisters, obgleich zweifellos *exceptions* in beiden Gruppen ⦗so dass auch Brüder Schwestern u. Schwestern Brüder in common hatten⦘. Alle diese wives zu einander in relationship of pŭnalŭa.

Brothers ceased to marry their own sisters, and after the gentile organization had worked upon society its complete results, their collateral sisters as well. *But in the interval they shared their remaining wives in common.* In like manner, sisters ceased marrying their own brothers, and after a long period of time, their collateral brothers; but they shared their remaining husbands in common.

Marriages in pŭnalŭan groups explain the relationships of the *Turanian system of consanguinity*. Giebt nun verschiedne Beispiele vom Ueberleben über savagery hinaus of punaluan custom; *Caesar De bell. gall.* über *Britons* in the *Middle Period of Barbarism*; Caesar sagt: »*Uxores habent deni duodenique inter se communes, et maxime fratres cum fratribus* parentesque cum liberis.« Barbarian mothers have not 10–12 sons, die als *Brüder* sich gemeinschaftliche Weiber halten könnten; aber das *Turanian system of consanguinity* liefert *viele Brüder*, weil *male cousins*, near and remote, fall in this category with *Ego*. Das *»parentesque cum liberis«* wahrscheinlich falsche Auffassung des Cäsar for *several sisters* sharing their husbands. *Herodot* über *Massagetae* in *Middle Status* of *Barbarism*. (l. I, c. 216) Herodots Phrase: *»γυναῖκα μὲν γαμέει ἕκαστος, ταύτῃσι δὲ ἐπίκοινα χρέωνται«* scheint auf Beginn der syndyasmian family hinzudeuten; jeder husband paired with one wife, who thus became his principal wife, but within the limits of the group husbands and wives continued in common. Die Massagetae, obgleich ignorant of iron, fought on horseback armed with battleaxes of copper and with copper-pointed spears, and manufactured and used the wagon. (ἅμαξα) Also *nicht promiscuity* supposable. *Herodot*, l. IV, *c. 104*, sagt auch v. den *Agathyrsi*: *»ἐπίκοινον δὲ τῶν γυναικῶν τὴν μῖξιν ποιεῦνται, ἵνα κασίγνητοί τε ἀλλήλων ἔωσι καὶ οἰκήϊοι ἐόντες πάντες μήτε φθόνῳ μήτ’ ἔχθεϊ χρέωνται ἐς ἀλλήλους«*. *Punaluan marriage in the group* erklärt besser diese u. similar usages in other tribes mentioned by Herodotus, than polygamy or general promiscuity.

*Herrera*, *Hist. of America*, sagt: (das gilt v. Zeit der first navigators who visited the *coast tribes of Venezuela*) „They observe no law or rule in matrimony, but took as many wives as they would, and they as many husbands, quitting one another at pleasure, without reckoning any wrong done on any part. There was no such thing as jealousy among them, all living as best pleased them, without taking offence at one another … *the houses they dwelt in were common to all, and so spacious that they contained 160 persons, strongly built*, though covered with palmtree leaves, and shaped like a bell.“

These tribes used *earthen vessels*, were in *Lower State of Barbarism*. ⦗derselbe *Herrera*, speaking of the *coast tribes of Brazil*: „they live in *bohios*, or *large thatched cottages*, of which there are about 8 in every village, full of people, with their nests or hammocks to lye in … they live in a beastly manner, without any regard to justice or decency.“[⦘]

Bei der *Entdeckung of North America* in its several parts, the *punaluan family seems to have entirely disappeared; syndyasmian form of family*, aber environed *with the remains* of the ancient conjugal system. Eine custom z. B. noch jetzt anerkannt in mindestens *40 North American Indian tribes*. Heirathete ein Mann die *älteste Tochter* einer family, so durch custom entitled *to all her sisters as wives when they attained the marriageable age*. Dies Recht selten enforced wegen der Schwierigkeit several families to maintain, obgleich *Polygamy allgemein anerkannt as privilege of the males*. Früher – pŭnalŭa – own sisters went into the marriage relation on the basis of sisterhood; nach Absterben der pŭnalŭan family the right remained with the husband of the eldest sister to become the husband of all her sisters, if he chose. Dies genuine revival of the ancient pŭnalŭan custom.

#### 2) Origin of the Organization into gentes.

*Partial development* of gentes in the *Status of savagery*, complete development in the *Lower Status of barbarism*. Germ of gentes found in the *Australian classes* wie in der *Hawaiian punaluan group*. The *gentes* are also found among the Australians, based upon the classes, *with the apparent manner of their organization out of them* … Its (the gentile organization’s) birth *must be sought in pre-existing elements of society*, and its *maturity* would be expected to occur long after its origination.

*Two of the fundamental rules of the gens in its archaic form* found in the *Australian classes*, the *prohibition of intermarriage between brothers and sisters*, and *descent in the family line* … und when *gens* appeared, *the children are found in the gens of their mothers*. Natural *adaptation of the classes to give birth to the gens sufficiently obvious* … Und in Australien the fact: *gens here found* (actually) *in connection with an antecedent and more archaic organization*, die *still the unit of a social system*, Platz später durch die gens eingenommen.

*Germ of gens* ebenso found in *Hawaiian punaluan group*, aber confined *to the female branch* of the custom, wo several sisters, own and collateral, shared their husbands in common. Diese Schwestern, mit ihren Kindern u. descendants through females, *liefern the exact membership of a gens of the archaic type*. Descent hier nothwendig traced durch females, da *paternity der children* nicht mit certainty ascertainable. Sobald diese specifische Form der Ehe in the group etablirte Institution, the *foundation for a gens existed*. Die Hawaiians did not turn this natural punaluan group into a *gens*, d.h. in *eine Organisation* beschränkt auf diese Mütter, Kinder u. Abkommen in der weiblichen Linie. Aber zu einer analogen Gruppe, *resting upon the sisterhood of the mothers*, or to the similar Australian group, resting upon the same principle of union, the *origin of the gens* must be ascribed. *It took this group as it found it*, and *organized certain of its members*, with certain of their posterity, *into a gens on the basis of kin*.

The gens sprang up in a *family*, which *consisted of a group of persons coincident substantially with the membership of a gens*.

Sobald *sich die gens voll entwickelt u. ihren full influence on society ausübte »wives became scarce in place of their former abundance«*, weil die gens tended »*to contract the size of the punaluan group*, and finally to overthrow it.« Die *syndyasmische Familie* wurde gradually produced within the punaluan, nachdem die gentile organization became predominant over ancient society. Als die syndyasmische Familie zu erscheinen begann u. die punaluan groups zu verschwinden, wurden *wives sought by purchase and capture*. Originating in the punaluan group, sprengte die gentile organization diese ihre Geburtsstätte.

#### 3) The Turanian or Ganowánian System of Consanguinity.

This system u. die gentile organization, when in its archaic form, werden gewöhnlich zusammen gefunden. Die family active principle, steht nie still, passes von a lower form into a higher one. *Systems of consanguinity* sind dagegen passiv; *recording the progress made by the family at long intervals apart, and only changing radically when the family has radically changed*. ⦗Ebenso verhält es sich mit *politischen, religiösen, juristischen*, *philosophischen* Systemen überhaupt.⦘

Das *Turanian system of consanguinity* drückt aus die *actual relationships wie sie in der Punaluan family* existiren; es beweist seinerseits die Praeexistenz dieser Familie. Das System geht herab bis auf unsre Zeit in Asien u. America, nachdem die *Familienform*, hence *Eheform*, aus der es entsprang, verschwunden u. die punaluan family ersetzt durch die syndyasmische. Die substantiell identischen Formen des Verwandtschaftssystems der *Seneca-Iroquois* (used as *typical* für die *Ganowánian tribes of America*) u. des *Tamil people v. Südindien* (als typical f. die *Turanian tribes of Asia*) haben gemein über 200 relationships of the same person. (sieh die *Tabellen* p. 447 sq.) Natürlich einige, aber nicht substantielle diversities der Systems bei different tribes u. nations. All alike salute by kin; unter den *Tamil people*, when the *person addressed is younger than the speaker*, the term of relationship must be used; when *older*, salute by kin or by the personal name; bei den *American aborigines*, the address must always be *by the term of relationship*. Dies System was also the means by which each individual in the ancient gentes was able to trace his connection with every member of his gens, bis monogamy das Turanian system niederwarf.

Bei den Seneca-Iroquois the relationships of Grandfather (Hoc’-sote), grandmother (Oc’-sote), grandson (Ha-yä’-da) u. granddaughter (Ka-yä’-da) sind die most remote recognized in aufsteigender u. absteigender Linie.

Die relationships of brother and sister sind nicht abstract, sondern in der doppelten Form v. »älter« u. »jünger«, mit special terms for each:

*Elder Brother Ha’-je; Younger Brother: Ha’-gă*; *Elder sister:* Ah’-jē; *Younger Sister: Ka’-gă*.

The relationship of the same person to Ego in many cases different mit change of the sex of the Ego.

*I<sup>st</sup> collateral line:* Für *male* Seneca *his brother’s son and daughter* are *his son and daughter (Ha-ah’-wuk u. Ka-ah’-wuk)* u. beide nennen ihn *Vater (Hä’-nih)*. Ebenso *seines brother’s grandchildren* his *grandsons* (*Ha-yä’-da* (singular)[)] u. *granddaughters* (Ka-yä’-da); beide nennen ihn (Hoc’-sote) *grandfather*. Also his brother’s children u. grandchildren in *same category with his own*.

Ferner: für *male Seneca his sister’s* son and daughter are his *nephew (Ha-yă’-wan-da)* u. *niece (Ka-yă’-wan-da)*, each calling him *uncle* (Hoc-no’-seh). So *relationships of nephew and niece restricted* to the children of a *man’s sisters*, own and collateral.

The *children of this nephew and niece* are his grandchildren, as before, u. he their *grandfather*.

Für *Seneca female* einige dieser relationships different; her *brother’s son and daughter* are her *nephew* (Ha-soh’-neh) und *niece* (Ka-soh’-neh) u. beide nennen sie *aunt (Ah-ga’-huc)*. (andre terms als für nephew u. niece des *male* Seneca) The children dieser nephews u. nieces sind ihre *grand-children*.

Her *sister’s son and daughter* are her son and daughter, jeder v. beiden nennt sie *Mutter* (Noh-yeh’) u. deren children sind ihre grand-children, nennen sie *grandmother* (Oc’-sote). The *wives* of these *sons and nephews* are her *daughters-in-law* (Ka’-sä) u. die *husbands* dieser daughters u. nieces are her *sons in law* (Oc-na’-hose) u. they apply to her the proper correlative.

*II<sup>nd</sup> collateral line. For male u. female Seneca: father’s brother his or her father*, calls [him or] her son or daughter. Also *all the brothers of a father* are placed in the relation of a father. Their sons and daughters *are his or her brothers and sisters*, elder or younger. Alias: *the children of brothers* are in the relationship of brothers and sisters.

Für *male Seneca*, the *children of these brothers* are *his sons and daughters*, their children his *grandchildren*; die *children of these sisters* his *nephews* and *nieces*, and the children of the latter his *grand-children*.

Für *female Seneca*: the *children of these brothers* her *nephews u. nieces*, the children of these sisters *her sons and daughters*, and their children alike her grandchildren.

*Des father’s sister* ist des Seneca’s *aunt*, calls him *nephew*, if he is a male. The relationship of *aunt* restricted to the *father’s sister* and the *sisters of such other persons* as stand to Seneca in the relation of a father, to the exclusion of the *mother’s sisters*. The *father’s sister’s children* are *cousins (Ah-gare’-seh)*.

*Für male Seneca:* the *children of his male cousins* are *his sons and daughters* u. *of his female cousins* his *nephews and nieces*.

*Für female Seneca:* the *id. id.* are her *nephews u. nieces* and *ditto* her *sons and daughters*.

All children of the latter his or her grandchildren.

*Für male Seneca: mother’s brother* is *uncle*, calls him *nephew*; the relationship of uncle hier restricted to the *mother’s brothers*, own and collateral, to the exclusion of the father’s brothers. *His children* sind des male Seneca’s *cousins*, the children of his *male cousins* are his sons and daughters, of his *female cousins* his *nephews and nieces*;

*für female Seneca* the children of all her cousins are *her grandchildren*.

*Female:* *The mother’s sisters* are *my mothers*, the *mother’s sister’s children* my *brothers and sisters*, elder and younger. The *children of these brothers* are my *sons* and *daughters*, of these *sisters* my nephews and nieces; and the children of the latter *my grandchildren*.

*Für female:* reversed the same relationships as before.

*Für male Seneca:* Each *of the wives of these several brothers* and of *these several male cousins* is his *sister-in-law* (Ah-ge-ah’-ne-ah), each of them calls him: *brother-in-law* (Ha-yă’-o).

Each of *the husbands* of these *several sisters and female cousins* is my *brother-in-law*.

*Traces of the punaluan* custom remain here and there in *the marriage relationship* of the American aborigines.

In *Mandan* my brother’s wife is *my* wife, in *Pawnee u. Arickaree* the same; in *Crow* my *husband’s brother’s wife* is *„my comrade“*; in *Creek* my *„present occupant“*, in *Munsee „my friend“*, in *Winnebago u. Achaotinne „my sister“*. My *wife’s sister’s husband* is in some tribes *„my brother“*, in others „my brother-in-law“, in *Creek*, *„my little separater“* whatever that may mean.

*III<sup>d</sup> collateral line:* hier nur one branch (4 entsprechend den vorhergehenden) considered.

my *father’s father’s brother* is my *grandfather*, calls me his *grandson*. It places these brothers in the relation of grandfathers and thus prevents *collateral ascendants from passing beyond this relationship*. The principle which *merges the collateral lines in the lineal line works upwards as well as downwards*. The son of this grandfather is my father, his children my brothers and sisters, the children of these brothers are my sons and daughters, of these sisters my nephews and nieces; and their children my grandchildren. With Ego being a female the same relationships reversed as in previous cases.

*IV<sup>th</sup> collateral line.* Auch nur eine branch dieser line betrachtet.

My *grandfather’s father’s brother* is my grandfather; his *son* also *my grandfather*; the son of the latter my *father*; his son and daughter my brother and sister, elder or younger; and their children and grandchildren follow in the same relationships to Ego as in other cases.

*V coll. line:* Classification same as in the corresponding branches of II<sup>d</sup>, except of additional ancestors.

In *Seneca-Iroquois* terms for *father-in-law* (Oc-na’-hose), for a wife’s father, and *Hä-gä’-sä* for a *husband’s father*. Former term also used for a son-in-law. Terms also for *stepfather* (Hoc’-no-ese) u. *stepmother* (Oc’-no-ese), stepson (Ha’-no) u. *stepdaughter* (Ka’-no). In a number of tribes 2 fathers-in-law and 2 mothers-in-law are related, and terms to express the connection.

In about one half of all the relationships named, the *Turanian system* is *identical with the Malayan*.

*Seneca u. Tamil* unterscheiden sich von Hawaiian in den relationships which depended on intermarriage or non-intermarriage of brothers and sisters. In den 2 ersteren z. B. my sister’s son is my nephew, in dem latter my son.

The change of relationships resulting from the *substitution der punaluan in place of the consanguine family* turns the *Malayan* in the *Turanian* system.

In *Polynesia* family punaluan; *system of consanguinity* bleibt *Malayan*;

In *Northamerica family syndyasmian, system of consanguinity* bleibt *Turanian*;

In *Europe u. Western Asia family becomes monogamian*, system of consanguinity *blieb* für Zeitlang *Turanian*, bis fallend in decadence *u.* succeeded by the *Aryan*.

The *Malayan system* must have prevailed generally in Asia *before the Malayan migration to the Islands of the Pacific*; the system (Turanian) transmitted in the Malayan form to the ancestors of the three families, with the streams of the blood, *from a common Asiatic source*; afterward modified into its present form by the remote ancestors of the Turanian and Ganowánian families.

The principal relationships of the *Turanian system* created by *punaluan family*; several of the marriage relationships have changed. The brotherhood of the husbands and the sisterhood of the wives formed the basis of the relation fully expressed by the Hawaiian custom *of pŭnalŭa*. Theoretically the *family of the period* was *coextensive* with *the group united in the marriage relation*; but practically, it must have *subdivided* into *a number of smaller families* for *convenience of habitation and subsistence*. The brothers, by 10 and 12, of the *Britons*, married to each other’s wives, may indicate the *size of an ordinary subdivision of a pŭnalŭan group*.

*Communism in living* seems to have originated *in the necessities of the consanguine family*, to *have been continued in the* punaluan, and transmitted to the *syndyasmian* unter den American aborigines, with whom it remained a practice down to the epoch of their discovery. (And the *South Slavonians*? and even *Russians* to a certain degree?)

### Part III. Ch. IV. The Syndyasmian and the Patriarchal families.

*Syndyasmian* od. *pairing family* gefunden bei Entdeckung der *American aborigines* unter der *Portion derselben* who were in *the Lower State of Barbarism*; *married pairs*, forming clearly marked *though but partially individualized families*. In dieser family der *germ der monogamian family*.

Verschiedne der *Syndyasmischen families usually found in one house* ⦗wie bei *Südslaven*: der *monogamischen Familien*⦘, *forming a communal household* ⦗wie Südslaven u. in some degree: *Russian peasants* vor u. nach Leibeignenemancipation⦘, worin the *principle of communism in living was practised*. Dies fact beweist *that the family was too feeble an organization* to face alone the hardships of life; aber founded upon *marriage between single pairs*. Die woman war jetzt *etwas mehr* als das *principal wife of her husband*; *birth of children* tended to cement the union and make it permanent.

*Marriages* hier founded not upon »sentiment«, but upon convenience and necessity. Die *mothers arranged the marriages of their children*, ohne deren previous consent od. knowledge; oft so *strangers* brought into marriage relation; at the proper time they were informed when the simple nuptial ceremony was to be performed. So usages bei *Iroquois* u. many other Indian tribes. *Prior to the marriage*, *presents* to the *gentile* relatives of the bride, *partaking* in *the nature of purchasing gifts*, became feature of these matrimonial transactions. *The relation continued only at the pleasure of the parties*, Mann oder Frau. Nach u. nach gebildet u. Kraft gewinnend public sentiment gegen diese separations; when dissension arose, erst Vermittlung versucht durch die *gentile kindred* of each party. Half das nicht, so *verliess Weib das Haus ihres Manns*, nahm mit ihren *personal effects auch die Kinder, regarded as exclusive her own*; wo *des wife’s kindred predominated in the communal household*, was gewöhnlich der Fall, the *husband left the home of his wife*. So *continuance of marriage relations at the option of the parties*.

Rev. *Asher Wright*, many years a *missionary among the Senecas*, wrote to Morgan in 1873 hierüber: „*As to their families, when occupying the old long-houses … some one clan predominated, the women taking in husbands from* the *other clans*; and *sometimes*, for a novelty, *some of their sons bringing in their young wives* until they felt brave enough to leave their mothers. *Usually, the female portion ruled the house* … *the stores were in common*; but woe to the luckless husband or lover who was too shiftless to do his share of the providing. No matter how many children, or whatever goods he might have in the house, he might at any time be ordered to pick up and budge, durfte nicht attempt to disobey. The house would be too hot for him, … he must retreat to his own clan; or, as was often done, go and start a new matrimonial alliance in some other. *The women were the great power among the clans, as everywhere else.* They did not hesitate, when occasion required, *‘to knock off the horns’*, as it was technically called, from the head of a chief, and send him back to the ranks of the warriors. *The original nomination of the chiefs also always rested with them*.“ Cf: *Bachofen: „Das Mutterrecht“*, wo gyneocracy discussed.

Unter den *Iroquois*, barbarians in *Lower Status of barbarism*, but of high mental grade, and among the equally advanced Indian tribes generally, verlangten die Männer *under severe penalties* Keuschheit v. den Weibern, aber nicht reciprocal obligation; *polygamy* universally recognized as the right of the males, was in practice limited from inability to support the indulgence. In *syndyasmian family* – absence of exclusive cohabitation. The old conjugal system remained, but under reduced u. restricted forms.

Aehnlich unter den *Village Indians in the Middle Status of barbarism*. Nach *Clavigero* (Hist. of Mexico) settled the parents all marriages. „A priest tied a point of the *huepilli* (gown) of the bride with the *tilmatli* (mantle of the bridegroom) and in this ceremony the matrimonial contract chiefly consisted.“ *Herrera (History of America)* says „*all that the bride brought* was kept in memory, that in case they should be unmarried again, as was usual among them, the goods might be parted; *the man taking the daughters, and the wife the sons* *, with liberty to marry again*.“ Polygamy a recognized right of the males among the Village Indians, more generally practiced, than among the less advanced tribes.

In the *punaluan family was more or less of pairing* from the necessities of the social state, each man having a *principal wife* among a number of wives and vice versa; so that *tendency in the direction of the syndyasmian family*. Dies result hauptsächlich hervorgebracht durch die *organization into gentes*. In dieser organization:

1) *Prohibition of intermarriage in the gens* excluded *own brothers and sisters, and also the children of own sisters*, da diese alle in der gens. Bei *subdivision der gens* the prohibition of intermarriage – with all the descendants in the female line of each ancestor in the gens – followed its branches, for long periods of time, as shown was the case among the Iroquois.

2) The structure der gens created a prejudice against the *marriage of consanguinei*; war schon sehr general unter den American aborigines zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung. z. B. unter den Iroquois none of the blood relatives enumerated were marriageable. Since es ward nöthig to seek wives from other gentes they began *to be acquired by negotiation u. by purchase*; scarcity of wives statt previous abundance; so *gradually contracted the numbers in the punaluan group*. Such groups have now disappeared, obgleich das [Turanian] system of consanguinity remains.

3) In seeking wives they did not confine themselves *to their own, nor even friendly tribes*; *captured them by force from hostile tribes*; hence *Indian usage* to *spare the lives of female captives, while the males were put to death*. When wives acquired by purchase and by capture, they not so readily shared as before. This tended to cut off *that portion of the theoretical group not immediately associated for subsistence*; reduced still more the size of the family and the range of the conjugal system. Practically group limited itself, from the first, to own brothers who shared their wives in common and own sisters who shared their husbands in common.

4) Gens created a higher structure of society than before known. Die marriage of unrelated persons created a more vigorous stock physically and mentally; 2 advancing tribes blended, the *new skull and brain would widen and lengthen to the sum of the capabilities of both*. –

The *propensity to pair*, now so powerful in the civilized races, also *nicht normal to mankind*, but *a growth through experience*, like all the great passions u. powers of the mind.

*Warfare under barbarians* – from more improved weapons and stronger incentives – zerstört more life als *Krieg unter savages*; the *males* trieben stets the trade of fighting; left *females in excess*; this strenghtened the conjugal system created by marriages in the group; *retarded the advancement der syndyasmian family*. Dagegen *improvement in subsistence*, following the *cultivation of maize u. plants*, favored the general advancement der family (bei den American aborigines). The more *stable such a family, the more its individuality developed*. Having taken a refuge *in a communal household*, in which a *group of such families succeeded the punaluan group*, it now drew its support from itself, from the household and the gentes to which the husbands and wives respectively belonged. *Syndyasmian family* springing up on the confines of savagery and barbarism, it traversed the *Middle and greater part of the Later Period of barbarism*, bis superseded by a *low form* of *the monogamian*. Overshadowed by the conjugal system of the times, it gained in recognition with the gradual progress of society.

Morgan sagt, was oft anwendbar, von den *Old Britons*: (in the middle status of barbarism) *»they seem to have been savages in their brains, while wearing the art apparel of more advanced tribes.«*

*Iron has been smelted from the ore* by a number of African tribes, including the Hottentots, as far back as our knowledge of them extends. *After producing the metal by rude processes acquired from foreign sources*, they have succeeded in fabricating rude instruments and weapons. (463)

Die Entwicklungen müssen studirt werden in areas where the institutions are *homogeneous*. *Polynesia u. Australia* best areas for the *study of savage society*. *North u. South America* für condition of society in the *Lower and Middle Status of Barbarism*. M. nimmt an *„Asiatic origin of the American aborigines“. Their advent in America* could not have resulted from a *deliberate migration*, but due to the accidents of the sea, and to the great ocean currents from Asia to the Nortwest coast. (464)

*Middle State of barbarism* – in 16<sup>t</sup> century – (splendidly) exemplified by the *Village Indians of New Mexico, Mexico, Central America, Grenada, Ecuador and Peru*, with its *advanced arts and inventions, improved architecture, nascent manufactures* and *incipient sciences*.

*Upper Status of barbarism – Grecian, Roman*, and later on the *German tribes*.

*Patriarchal family of the Semitic tribes* belongs to the *Later Period of Barbarism* and remained for a time *after the commencement of civilization*. *Chiefs* lived in *polygamy*; dies *nicht the material principle of the patriarchal institution*. Was diese *Familienform* wesentlich charakterisirt: *Organization of a number of persons, bond and free, into a family, under paternal power, for the purpose of holding lands, and for the care of flocks and herds*. Those *held to servitude*, and *those employed as servants*, lived *in the marriage relation*, and *with the patriarch as their chief*, formed a patriarchal family. *Authority over its members and over its property was the material fact.* Das Charakteristische: *the incorporation of numbers in servile and dependent relations, before that time unknown.* Paternal power over the group; with it a higher individuality of persons.

So auch die *Roman family under patria potestas*; Macht des pater über Leben u. Tod seiner Kinder u. descendants, wie über *slaves und servants* who formed the *nucleus of the family* and furnished *its name*; his *absolute ownership of all the property they created*. Without polygamy, the Roman *pater familias was a patriarch* and his family *a patriarchal family*. In mindrem Grad selbe Charakteristik der ancient family der *Grecian tribes*.

The *patriarchal family* marks the peculiar epoch in human progress when the *individuality of the person began to rise above the gens*, in which it previously had been merged; its general influence tended powerfully to the establishment of the *monogamian family* … Its *Hebrew and Roman forms* exceptional in human experience. *Paternal authority »impossible«* in the *consanguine* and *punaluan families*; began to appear as a feeble influence in the *syndyasmian family*, ward fully established under *monogamy* u. beyond all bounds of reason *in the patriarchal family of the Roman type*.

### Part III. Ch. V. The Monogamian Family.

Mode: *patriarchal family* – in *Latin or Hebrew form* – zur typical form of primitive society zu machen. The *gens*, as it appeared in the later period of barbarism, was understood, but erroneously supposed to *be subsequent in point of time to the monogamian family*. The gens was treated as an aggregation of families; aber gens *entered ganz* in phratry, phratry in tribe, tribe into the nation; aber *family could not enter entirely into the gens, because husband and wife were necessarily of different gentes*. The wife, down to the latest period, counted herself of the gens of her father, and bore *the name of his gens* under the Romans. As all the parts must enter into the whole, *the family* could not become the *unit of the gentile organization*, that *place was held by the gens*.

*family* – modern appearence unter Roman tribes; beweist die Bedeutung von *familia*, contains same element as *famulus* = *servant*. *Festus* sagt: »*Famuli* origo ab Oscis dependet, apud quos *servus famul* nominabun(?)tur, unde [et] *familia* vocata.« Also in seiner primären Bedeutung *family* unbezogen auf das *married pair* od. dessen *children*, sondern in relation *to the body of slaves and servants* who labored for its maintenance and were under the power of the *pater familias*. In einigen testamentarischen dispositions ist *Familia* used als *Equivalent* für *patrimonium*, the inheritance which passed to the heir. *Gajus instit.* II, 102: »Amico *familiam suam*, id est *patrimonium* suum mancipio dabat.« Wurde introducirt in Lateinische Gesellschaft to define a new organism, the head of which held wife and children, and a body of servile persons under paternal power. *Mommsen* nennt die *familia* a „body of servants“. (*Roman Hist.*) Dieser term also nicht älter als *the iron-clad family system* of the Latin tribes, *which came in after field agriculture and after legalized servitude*, as well as *after the separation of* the *Greeks and Romans*. ⦗*Fourier* charakterisirt Epoche der *Civilisation durch Monogamy u. Grund Privateigentum*. Die moderne Familie enthält im Keim nicht nur *servitus* (Sklaverei) sondern auch *Leibeigenschaft*, da sie von vorn herein Beziehung auf *Dienste für* Ackerbau. Sie enthält in *Miniatur* alle die Antagonismen in sich, die sich später breit entwickeln in der Gesellschaft u. ihrem Staat.⦘

Mit der *syndyasmischen Familie* Keim der väterlichen Autorität, entwickelt sich je mehr die neue Familie *monogamische Charaktere* annimmt. Sobald *property began to be created in masses* u. the *desire for its transmission to children had changed descent from the female line to the male, wurde zuerst a real foundation for paternal power gelegt*. *Gajus* selbst sagt *Inst.* I, 55: »Item in *potestate nostra* sunt *liberi nostri* ⦗auch *jus vitae necisque*⦘, quos justis nuptiis procreavimus, *quod jus proprium civium Romanorum est: fere enim nulli alii sunt homines, qui talem in filios suos habent potestatem, qualem nos habemus*.« Monogamy appears in a *definite form* in the *Later Period of Barbarism*.

*Old Germans:* their institutions *homogeneous and indigenous*. Nach Tacitus *marriages strict* among them; *contented themselves with a single wife*, a very few excepted *on account of their rank*; husband brought dowry to his wife (not vice versa), nämlich a *caparisoned horse and a shield, with a spear and sword*; by *virtue of these gifts the wife was espoused*. (*Germania*, c. 18) The presents in the nature of purchasing gift – zweifelsohne früher *für gentile kindred of the* wife – damals schon went to bride. *»Singulis uxoribus contenti sunt«* (*Germania*, c. 18) u. die Weiber *»septa pudicitia agunt«.*

Wahrscheinlich family »*sheltered itself in a communal household* (wie Südslaven) *composed of related families*. *When slavery became an institution, these households would gradually disappear.*[«] ⦗In fact: die *monogamische family* unterstellt, um selbstständig, isolated, existiren zu können, überall *a domestic class, die ursprünglich überall direct slaves*.⦘

*Homeric Greeks: Monogamian family of a low type.* the treatment of their female captives reflects the culture of the period with respect to women in general; *tent life of Achilles u. Patroclus*; whatever of monogamy existed, was *through an enforced constraint upon wives* ⦗some degree of seclusion⦘.

Der *change of descent von der female line to the male* schädlich für Position u. Rechte der Frau u. Mutter; ihre Kinder transferred von ihrer gens zur gens ihres husband; sie verlor durch marriage *ihre agnatic rights*, erhielt kein Equivalent dafür; vor dem change, *die Glieder ihrer eignen Gens predominated in the household*; dies gave full force to the maternal bond u. machte *women rather than men the center of the family*. Nach dem change stand sie allein im household ihres husband, isolated from her gentile kindred. Under the prosperous classes *her condition of enforced seclusion* u. als *primary object der marriage to beget children in lawful wedlock (παιδοποιεῖσθαι γνησίως)*.

Von Anfang bis End unter den Griechen a principle of studied selfishness among the males, tending to lessen the appreciation of women, *scarcely found among savages* … the usages of centuries stamped upon the minds of Grecian women a sense of their inferiority. ⦗Aber das Verhältniss der *Göttinnen im Olymp* zeigt Rückerinnerung an frühere freiere u. einflussreichere Position der Weiber. Die Juno herrschsüchtig, die Weisheit Göttin, springt aus Kopf des Zeus etc⦘ Es war vielleicht … diese Race nöthig, um aus Syndyasmian in Monogamian system herüberzukommen. Greeks blieben *barbarians* in their treatment of the female sex at the height of their civilization; their education superficial, intercourse with the opposite sex denied them, their inferiority inculcated as a principle upon them, until it *came to be accepted as a fact by the women themselves*. Das wife not companion equal to her husband, but *in the relation of a daughter*.

See *Becker: Charicles*.

Da die moving power which brought in monogamy was – the growth of property and the desire for its *transmission to children – legitimate heirs*, the *actual progeny* of *the married pair* – in the *Upper Status of Barbarism* sprang up – als protection gegen das survival of some portion of the ancient *jura conjugalia* – the new usage: *the seclusion of wives*; plan of [domestic] life among the civilized Greeks – *a system of female confinement and restraint*.

*Roman family: Mater familias* was mistress of the family; went into the streets freely ohne restraint by her husband, frequented with the men the theaters and festive banquets; in the house not confined to particular apartments, nor excluded from the table of the men; Roman females daher mehr personal dignity u. independence als griechische; aber *marriage* gave them *in manum viri*; war = daughter des husband; he had the power of correction u. of life u. death in case of adultery (mit concurrence of the council of her gens).

*Confarreatio*, *coëmptio*, *usus*, alle 3 Formen der röm. Ehe, gaben Frau in manus des Mannes, fell out *under the Empire*, when *free marriage* generally adopted, not placing the wife in manus des Mannes.

*Divorce*, von frühster Periode, at the option of the parties, (wahrscheinlich transmitted v. *Syndyasmian family* Period), selten in Republik. *(Becker: Gallus)*

Licentiousness – so auffallend in Grecian u. Roman cities at the height of civilization – in all probability *remains of an ancient conjugal system*, never fully eradicated, had followed down from barbarism as a social taint u. *now expressed its excesses in the new channel of hetaerism*.

Der *Monogamian family* entsprach *Aryan* (Semitic, Uralian) *system of consanguinity and affinity*. Gentes had their natural origin in the *punaluan* family. The principal branches of the Aryan stock *organized into gentes* when first known historically; zeigt dass sie auch dort anfingen u. aus der punaluan family entsprang *Turanian system of consanguinity*, *still found connected with the gens in its archaic form* among the American aborigines. Also auch dies ursprüngliches system der Aryans. Im *Aryan system of consanguinity* – Armuth of *original nomenclature* for relationship erklärt dadurch dass a *large portion of the nomenclature of the Turanian system would fall out under monogamy*. *Common* unter den several Aryan dialects nur: *father* u. *mother, brother* u. *sister, son u. daughter* u. a *common term* applied indiscriminately to *nephew, grandson and cousin (Sanscrit: naptar, lat. nepos, Greek: ἀνεψιός)*. In so advanced Cultur, wie Monogamy voraussetzt, they could not have arrived mit such a scanty nomenclature of blood relationships. Erklärt with a previous system wie das Turanian, durch impoverishment.

Im *Turanian* system brothers u. sisters – younger u. elder u. the several terms applied to categories of persons including persons not own brothers and sisters. Im *Aryan*, on basis of *monogamy*, terms for brother u. sister now *in the abstract* for the first time u. inapplicable to collaterals.

Remains of a prior Turanian system still appear: So bei *Hungarians* brothers u. sisters classified als *elder* u. *younger* by special terms. *French frère* (*aîné*\älter, *puîné* u. *cadet*\junger); *aînée u. cadette* älter u. junger sister. *Sanskrit:* älter *Bruder u. jüngerer* (*agrajar* u. *amujar*), ditto für Schwester (*agrajri* u. *amujri*). If common terms once existed in Greek, Roman etc dialects für elder u. younger brother and sister, their *former application* to *categories of persons*, machte sie unanwendbar als exclusiv für own brothers and sisters.

Für *grandfather* no *common term in the Aryan dialects. Sansk. pitameha, Gr. πάππος, lat. avus, Russ. djed, Welsh: hendad*. Der term in a *previous system* (Turanian) was applied nicht nur zu grandfather proper, his brothers and several male cousins, sondern auch to brothers u. several male cousins of his grandmother; konnte daher nicht be made to signify a *lineal grandfather and progenitor under monogamy*.

*Kein term für uncle u. aunt in the abstract* u. *no special terms für uncle u. aunt* väterl. u. mütterl. Seite in den Aryan dialects. *Sansk. pitroya, Gr. πάτρως, lat. patruus, Slavonic: stryc; Anglo-Saxon, Belgian, German: eam, oom, oheim* for paternal uncle. In der *Aryan original speech* no term für Onkel *mütterlicher Seite*, a relationship made so conspicuous *by the gens* among barbarous tribes. If the previous system *Turanian*, necessarily a term hierfür, aber restricted *to the own brothers of the mother, and her several male cousins*; die *Categorie* schloss numbers of persons ein wovon viele could not be uncles under the monogamian system.

Dagegen erklärt sich, bei früherer Existenz des *Turanian Systems* (by *categories*) der Uebergang zu *descriptive system* auf Basis der Monogamy. Jede relationship under monogamy is *specific*; persons, under the new system, described by *means of the primary terms* or *combinations of them* as *brother’s son* für *nephew, father’s brother* für Onkel, *father’s brother’s son* für cousin. Dies war the *original* of the present system of the Aryan, Semitic u. Uralian families. The generalizations they now contain were of later origin. *All the tribes*, die das Malayan u. Turanian system besassen, *described their kindred by the same formula*, when asked in what manner one person was related to another; nicht as a system of consanguinity, but as a means of tracing relationships. *Schluss* daraus: nach allgemeiner Errichtung des monogamian systems unter Aryans etc, fielen *diese back upon the old descriptive form*, always in use under the Turanian system u. dropten diesselbst als *useless u. untrue to descents*.

*Beweis dass das original des present system purely descriptive: Erse* – typical Aryan form, *Esthonian* – typical *Uralian* – are still descriptive. Im *Erse* the only terms for the bloodrelationships *the primary*: *father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter*. Alle andre kindred *described* vermittelst dieser terms, commencing in *the reverse order*. z. B. *brother, son of brother, son of son of brother*. The Aryan system exhibits the actual relationships under monogamy, assumes that the paternity of children is known.

Später a *method of description*, materially different from the Celtic, was *engrafted upon the new system*; but without changing its radical features; introduced by the *Roman civilians*, angenommen durch verschiedne Aryan nations, unter denen Roman influence extended. *Slavonic System* has some features entirely peculiar, of *Turanian origin* (see: *Systems of consanguinity* etc p. 40).

*Römische Aenderungen:* unterschieden *väterlichen u. mütterlichen Onkel* mit besondern terms dafür, erfanden *term für Grossvater* als *correlative of nepos*. Mit diesen terms u. den primary, in connection mit suitable augments, konnten sie systematize the relationships in the lineal u. the first 5 collateral lines, which included the body of the kindred of each individual.

The *Arabic* system passed through processes similar to the Roman u. mit similar results.

Von *Ego* to *tritavus*, in the lineal line, *6 generations of ascendants* u. von *Ego to trinepos* the *same number of descendants*, in deren description nur *4 radical terms* used. Wäre es nöthig to ascend farther, *tritavus* would become the new starting point of description: *tritavi pater* bis *tritavi tritavus*; the 12<sup>th</sup> ancestor of Ego in the lineal line, male; ebenso *trinepotis trinepos* etc.

*1<sup>st</sup> collateral line male:* *frater; fratris filius; fratris nepos; fratris pronepos* bis *fratris trinepos*; wenn zum 12<sup>t</sup> descendant *fratris trinepotis trinepos*. Durch diese simple Method *frater* is made the root of descent in this line.

*Same line: female:* *soror, sororis filia, sororis neptis, sororis proneptis* bis *sororis trineptis* (6<sup>th</sup> degree) u. *sororis trineptis trineptis* (12<sup>th</sup> descendant).

Beide Linien descend von pater; aber, by making the brother and sister the root of descent in the description, the line and its two branches are maintained distinct, and the *relationship of each person to Ego* is specialized.

*2<sup>nd</sup> collateral line:* *male on the father’s side: father’s brother, patruus; patrui filius, p. nepos, p. pronepos, p. trinepos*, bis *patrui trinepotis trinepos*.

*patrui filius* heisst auch *frater patruelis*, u. in gewöhnl. Volkssprache *consobrinus* (cousin).

*Pand. lib. XXXVIII, tit. 10* »Item fratres patrueles, sorores patrueles, id est qui quaeve ex duobus fratribus progenerantur; item consobrini consobrinae, id est qui quaeve ex duabus sororibus nascuntur (quasi *consororini*); item *amitini amitinae*, id est qui quaeve ex fratre et sorore propagantur; sed fere vulgus istos omnes communi appellatione consobrinos vocat.«

*female on the father’s side: father’s sister; amita, amitae filia, a. neptis, a. trineptis, a. trineptis trineptis*; special term for amitae filia *amitina*.

*3<sup>d</sup> collateral line: male on the father’s side*[:] grandfather’s brother – *patruus magnus* (keine existing language has an original term for this relationship); *patrui magni filius, nepos*, trinepos, ending with patrui magni trinepotis trinepos.

*same line female* (on father’s side) commences with *amita magna*, great paternal aunt etc.

*4<sup>th</sup> and 5<sup>th</sup> collateral lines* on the father’s side commence *respectively* mit *patruus major* (great grandfather’s brother) u. *patruus maximus* (great-great-grandfather’s brother). Geht dann wie vorhin: *patrui majoris* filius, bis *trinepos* u. *patrui maximi filius bis trinepos*.

*Female branches* (on paternal side) commence respectively mit *amita major* u. *amita maxima*.

| *die relatives* **on the mother’s side,** *the first collateral line* soror etc remains the same, während the *female lineal line* is *substituted for the male*. |  |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Second collateral line* | *(on mother’s side):* | *avunculus* (maternal uncle), *avunculi filius, nepos, trinepos etc*. |  |  |
| *In the female branch* | (on mother’s side): | *matertera* (maternal aunt), *materterae filia, neptis, proneptis, trineptis* etc. |  |  |
| *Third collateral line,* *male and female* | (on mother’s side), | begin respectively mit: | *avunculus magnus* | u. *matertera magna*; |
| *Fourth* |  | mit | *avunculus major* | u. *matertera major*. |
| *Fifth* |  |  | *avunculus maximus* | u. *matertera maxima*. |

Mit Bezug auf die present *monogamian family*: *it must advance as society advances, and change as society changes*, even as it has done in the past. It is the creature of the social system … must be supposable that it is capable of still farther improvement *until the equality of the sexes is attained*. Should the monogamian family in the distant future fail to answer the requirements of society, assuming the continuous progress of civilization, it is impossible to predict the nature of its successor. (491, 492)

### Part III. Ch. VI. Sequence of Institutions connected with the family.

| *First stage of sequence:* | I) | *Promiscuous Intercourse.* |
|---|---|---|
|  | II) | *Intermarriage of Brothers and Sisters, own and collateral, in a group; gives:* |
|  | III) | *The Consanguine Family (first stage of the family*[)]; gives: |
|  | *IV)* | *The Malayan System of Consanguinity u. Affinity.* |
| *Second Stage of Sequence:* | *V)* | *The organization upon the Basis of Sex, and the Punaluan Custom, tending to check* the *intermarriage of brothers and sisters; gives:* |
|  | VI) | *The Punaluan Family (Second Stage of the Family)*, gives: |
|  | VII) | *The Organization into Gentes, which excluded brothers and sisters from marriage.* Gives: |
|  | VIII) | *The Turanian and Ganowánian System of Consanguinity and Affinity.* |
| *Third Stage of Sequence.* | IX) | *Increasing influence of Gentile Organization and improvement in the arts of life, advancing a portion of mankind into the Lower Status of Barbarism*, gives: |
|  | X) | *Marriage between single pairs, but without an exclusive cohabitation*; gives: |
|  | XI) | *Syndyasmian Family (Third Stage of the Family).* |
| *Fourth stage of Sequence.* | XII) | *Pastoral life on the plains in limited areas*, gives: |
|  | XIII) | *Patriarchal family (Fourth, but exceptional Stage of family)* |
| *Fifth Stage of Sequence:* | XIV) | *Rise of Property, and settlement of lineal succession to estates*, gives: |
|  | XV) | *The Monogamian family (Fifth Stage of the family)*, gives: |
|  | XVI) | *The Aryan, Semitic and Uralian system of Consanguinity and Affinity, and overthrows the Turanian.* |

I) *Promiscuous intercourse. Leben in Horde*; no marriage; far below the lowest savage now living; The *ruder flint implements* found over part of the earth’s surface, and not used by existing savages, attest extreme rudeness of man’s condition, after he had emerged from his primitive habitat, and commenced, as a fisherman, his spread over continental areas. – *Primitive Savage*.

The *consanguine family … recognized promiscuity within defined limits, and those not the narrowest*, and it points through its organism to a *worse condition* against which it interposed a shield.

ad V) In the*Australian male and female classes united in marriage, punaluan groups* are found. Among the *Hawaiians*, the same group is also found, with the marriage custom it expresses. The *punaluan family included the same persons found* in *the previous consanguine*, *with the exception of own brothers and sisters*, who were theoretically if not in every case excluded.

*ad VII* *Organization into gentes.* Unter den *Australian classes*, the *punaluan group* is found on a broad and systematic scale; the people were also organized in gentes. Here the punaluan family *older than the gens*, because it rested upon classes which preceded the gentes. … The *Turanian system* requires both the *punaluan family and the gentile organization* to bring it into existence.

*ad X and XI* Tendency to reduce the *groups of married persons to smaller proportions* before the close of savagery, because the *syndyasmian family* became a constant phenomenon in the *Lower Status of Barbarism*. Custom led the more advanced savage to *recognize one among a number of wives as his principal wife*; this ripened in time into the custom of *pairing*, and in making this wife a companion and associate in the maintenance of family. … *The old conjugal system*, now reduced to narrower limits by the gradual disappearance of *punaluan groups*, still environed the advancing family, which it was to follow to the verge of civilization. … It *finally disappeared into the new form of hetaerism, which still follows mankind in civilization as a dark shadow upon the family.* … Syndyasmian family subsequent to the gens, which was largely instrumental in its production. From the *Columbia River* to the *Paraguay*, the *Indian* family was *syndyasmian* in general, *punaluan* in exceptional areas, u. *monogamian* perhaps in none.

*ad XIV* It is impossible to overestimate the *influence of property* in the civilization of mankind. It was the power that brought the Aryan and Semitic nations out of barbarism into civilization. … *Governments and laws are instituted* with primary reference to its creation, protection and enjoyment. *It introduced human slavery as an instrument in its production* … With the establishment of the inheritance of property in the children of its owner, came the first possibility of a strict monogamian family.

*ad XV* *The Monogamian family:* As finally constituted, this family assured the paternity of children, *substituted the individual ownership of real as well as personal property for joint ownership*, and *an exclusive inheritance by children in the place of agnatic inheritance*. Modern society reposes upon the Monogamian family.

Alle älteren Burschen – darunter *Sir Henry Maine* – nehmen Hebrew u. Latin types (patriarchal family) an as producing the earliest organized society … damit hängt zusammen the hypothesis of *human degradation* to explain the *existence of barbarians u. savages*. Aber *inventions u. discoveries came one by one*; the knowledge of a *cord* must precede the *bow and arrow*, wie gunpowder the musket, steam engine the railway and steamship; so *the arts of subsistence* followed each other at long intervals u. *human tools passed through forms of flint and stones* before they were formed of iron. Ebenso *institutions*

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## Part IV. (The Growth of the Idea of Property)

### Ch. I. The three rules of inheritance.

*»Earliest ideas* (!) *of property«* intimately associated mit *procurement of subsistence, the primary need*. Die *objects of ownership* vermehren sich natürlich in jeder »successive ethnical period« mit der *multiplication der arts wovon die Subsistenzmittel* abhängen. *Wachsthum v. Eigenthum* hält so Schritt mit *Fortschritt von Erfindungen u. Entdeckungen*. Jede ethnische Periode zeigt so *marked advance upon its predecessors*, nicht nur in der *Zahl der Erfindungen*, sondern ebenso in *variety and amount of property* which resulted therefrom. The *multiplicity of the forms of property* would be accompanied by the *growth of certain regulations with reference to possession and inheritance*. The *customs* upon which *these rules* of *proprietary possession and inheritance depend*, are *determined* by the *condition and progress of social organization*. The growth of property is thus closely connected with the increase of inventions *and discoveries*, and the *improvement of social institutions* which mark the several ethnical periods of human progress. *(525, 526)*

#### I) Property in the Status of Savagery.

Mankind, when *ignorant of fire*, without *articulate language*, and without *artificial weapons* … depended … *upon the spontaneous fruits of the earth*. Langsam u. fast unbemerkbar, in der Period of savagery, avanciren sie von *Gebärdensprache* u. *unvollkommnen sounds* to *articulate speech*; von dem *club* (Keule), als erster *Waffe*, zu *spear* pointed with flint, u. schliesslich zu *arrow u. bow*; von *flint-knife* u. *-chisel* to *stone axe u. -hammer*; von *ozier* (Korbweide) u. *cane basket* to the *basket coated with clay*, which gave a *vessel for boiling food with fire*; and, *finally, to the art of pottery*.

*In the means of subsistence*, they advanced from *natural fruits in a restricted habitat* to *scale and shell fish of the sea*, and *finally to bread roots and game*.

Ferner im status von savagery developed: *Rope* *and string-making from filaments of bark*; a *species of cloth made of vegetable pulp*; the *tanning of skins* to be *used as apparel* and as a *covering for tents*; finally the *house constructed of poles and covered with bark*, or *made of plank split by stone wedges*. Unter *minor inventions* zählt er neben *fire-drill* (während umgekehrt alles zum Feuermachen Gehörige die Hauptinvention!), *moccasin* (Indian word für Schuhe ohne Sohlen aus weicherm skin von deer etc), u. the *snow-shoe*.

*Während dieser Periode* grosse Vermehrung der Menschen (im Gegensatz zum primitiven Zustand) auf Basis vermehrter ConsumtionsMittel, *Ausbreitung derselben über die Continents*. In *socialer Organization* Fortschritt von *consanguine horde* zu *tribes organized into gentes*, so *possessed of the germs of the principal governmental institutions*.

Der entwickeltste Theil der savages, had *finally organized gentile society* u. *developed small tribes with villages here and there* … ihre rude energies and ruder arts chiefly devoted to subsistence; noch nicht the *village stockade* (Pfahlwerk) *for defence, no farinaceous food*, still *cannibalism*. – Der progress was *immense »potentially«*, trug in sich die *rudiments* of language, government, family, religion, house architecture, property; ditto the principal germs of the arts of life.

*Property of savages inconsiderable; rude weapons, fabrics, ustensils, apparel, implements of flint, stone, and bone* u. *»personal ornaments« their chief items of property*. Wenige Gegenstände des Besitzes, keine passion für Besitz; kein *studium lucri*, now such a commanding *force in the human mind*.

*Lands owned by the tribes in common*, while *tenement-houses owned jointly by their occupants*.

*Die passion of possession* nourished its nascent powers upon *articles purely personal*, increasing with the slow progress of *inventions*. Those *esteemed most valuable deposited in the grave of the deceased proprietor for his continued use in spirit-land*.

*Inheritance*: *its first great rule* came in with the *institution of the gens, which distributed the effects of a deceased person among his gentiles*. Practically they were *appropriated by the nearest of kin*; but the *principle general that the property should remain in the gens of decedent*, *and be distributed among its members*. ⦗*Blieb in civilization. v. Greek, Roman gentes.*⦘ *Children inherited from their mother, but took nothing from their reputed father.*

#### II) Property in the Lower State of Barbarism.

*Hauptinventions:* *art of pottery*, *finger weaving* and the *art of cultivation in America* which gave farinaceous food *(maize)* u. plants by irrigation (in Eastern hemisphere beginning as equivalent: *domestication of animals*), keine great inventions. *Finger weaving*, with *warp and woof* (Kette u. Einschlag) scheint dieser Periode anzugehören, ist eine der greatest inventions; but it cannot be certainly affirmed that *the art was not attained in savagery*.

The *Iroquois* u. other tribes of America in the same status manufactured *belts* u. *burden-straps with warp and woof of excellent quality and finish*; using *fine twine made of filaments of elm and basswood bark*. (*basswood* americ. Linde) *Principles dieser Erfindung*, which since clothed the human family, *were perfectly realized*; but sie were *unable* to extend it *to the production of the woven garment*.

*Picture writing* seems to have made its first appearance in this period; *wenn früheren Ursprungs*, erhielt es jetzt sehr beträchtliche Entwicklung. Die *series of connected inventions* in this department:

1) *Gesture Language or language of personal symbols.* 2) *Picture writing, or idiographic symbols.* 3) (verte) 3) *Hieroglyphs*, or *conventional symbols*. 4) *Hieroglyphs of phonetic power*, or *phonetic symbols used in a syllabus*. 5) *Phonetic Alphabet* or written sounds.

The characters on the *Copan monuments* apparently hieroglyphs of the grade of *conventional symbols*; beweisen, dass die *American aborigines, who practised the 3 first forms*, unabhängig auf Weg in direction of a phonetic alphabet.

*Stockade as a means of village defence* u. of a *raw-hide shield* als defence gegen *arrow*, which had now become a deadly missile, of the *several varieties of war-club, armed with an encased stone or with a point of deer-horn*, scheinen zu dieser Periode zu gehören. Jedenfalls waren sie in *common use* among the American Indian Tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism when discovered. Der *Speer, pointed mit flint or bone* kein customary weapon with the *forest-tribes*, though sometimes used; z. B. die *Ojibwas* used the *lance or spear*, She-mä’-gun, pointed with flint or bone. *Bow u. arrow*, und *war-club* Hauptwaffen der American Indians in diesem Status.

*Einiger Fortschritt in pottery*, nämlich im *increased size der vessels produced* u. in *their ornamentation*; the *Creeks* made *earthen vessels* von 2 to 10 gallons; die *Iroquois* ornamented their *jars u. pipes mit miniature human faces attached as buttons*; im ganzen blieb pottery extremely rude bis Ende dieser Periode.

*Bemerkbarer Fortschritt in House architecture* in *size* u. *mode of construction*.

Unter *minor inventions: air-gun for bird shooting, wooden mortar for reducing maize to flour* u. der *stone mortar for preparing paints*;

*Earthen u. stone pipes, with the use of tobacco*;

*Bone and stone implements* of higher grades, with *stone hammers and mauls* (mauls sind heavy wooden hammers), the *handle* and upper part of the stone being encased in raw hide; and *moccasins u. belts ornamented with porcupine quills*.

Einige dieser Erfindungen wahrscheinlich *geborgt from tribes in the Middle Status*; denn es *war durch diesen Process constantly repeated that the more advanced tribes lifted up those below them*, as fast as the latter were able to appreciate and appropriate the means of progress.

*The cultivation of maize and plants* gave the people *unleavened bread*, the *Indian succotash* (Speise von grünem Mais u. Bohnen) u. *hominy* (Maismuss); tended also to *introduce a new species of property, cultivated lands or gardens*. *Obgleich lands owned in common by a tribe*, a *possessory right to cultivated land was now recognized in the individual*, or *in the group, which became a subject of inheritance*. The *group united in a common household were mostly of the same gens*, and the rule of inheritance would not allow it to be *detached from the kinship*.

*Inheritance:* The *property u. effects v. husband u. wife kept distinct*, remained after their demise in the gens wozu sie respective gehörten. Weib u. Kinder nahmen nichts von husband u. father u. vice versa. Starb unter den *Iroquois* ein Mann leaving wife and children, so wurde *sein Eigenthum* vertheilt *unter seine gentiles* so dass *seine Schwestern u. deren children u. his maternal uncles* would receive the most of it; *his brothers* might receive a small portion. *Starb a wife*, leaving husband and children, so *ihre effects* geerbt von *ihren Kindern, Schwestern, Mutter u. Mutterschwestern*; *die greater portion* assigned to her children; in jedem Fall *blieb property in der gens*. Unter den *Ojibwas* die effects der Mutter vertheilt unter ihren Kindern, wenn alt genug to use them; sonst, od. in default of children, they *went to her sisters*, ihrer *Mutter u. Mutterschwestern*, to the *exclusion of her brothers*. Obgleich die *Ojibwas had changed descent to the male line*, the inheritance *followed the rule which prevailed when descent was in the female line*.

Die *variety u. amount of property grösser als in savagery*, aber noch nicht stark genug to develop a strong sentiment in relation to inheritance.

In dem *distributionsmodus* germ der *2<sup>nd</sup> great rule of inheritance, which gave the property to the agnatic kindred, to the exclusion of the remaining gentiles*. Agnation and agnatic kindred assume jetzt *descent in the male line*; Princip selbes in beiden cases, aber *the persons included – different*. Mit descent in the female line, *agnates* Personen who can trace their descent through females exclusively vom same common ancestor with the intestate; im andern Fall, who can trace their descent durch males exclusively. *It is the blood connection of persons within the gens by direct descent, in a given line*, vom *selben common ancestor* which lies at *the foundation of agnatic relation*.

Gegenwärtig *unter advanced Indian tribes* hat begun sich zu manifest *repugnance gegen gentile inheritance*; einige haben sie ganz über Bord geworfen u. *exclusive inheritance in children substituirt*. Evidence of this repugnance unter *Iroquois, Creeks, Cherokees, Choctas, Menominees, Crows* u. *Ojibwas*.

In dieser älteren Periode of barbarism *sehr bedeutende Abnahme of cannibalism*; wurde aufgegeben *als common practice*; blieb als *war practice* in dieser u. der Middle Period. In dieser Form ward Cannibalism *gefunden in den principal tribes der U. St., Mexico*, u. *Central America*. Erwerbung v. farinaceous food Hauptmittel to extricate mankind von this savage custom.

I) u. II), *status of savagery* u. *Lower Status of barbarism*, diese *2 ethnischen Perioden*, cover mindestens ⅘ der ganzen Existenz der Menschheit auf der Erde.

Im Lower Status beginnen die higher attributes of mankind sich zu entwickeln: *Persönliche Würde, Beredsamkeit, religious sensibility, rectitude, manliness* u. *courage* jetzt *common traits of character*, aber auch *Grausamkeit, treachery* u. *fanaticism*. *Element worship in religion*, with a *dim conception of personal gods*, and of a *Great Spirit, rude verse making, joint-tenement houses*, and *bread from maize* belong to this period. It produced also *syndyasmian family* u. *confederacy of tribes, organized into phratries u. gentes*. Die *imagination*, that great faculty so largely contributing to the elevation of mankind, was *now producing* an *unwritten literature of myths, legends u. traditions*, already become powerful stimulus upon the race.

#### III) Property in the middle Status of Barbarism.

Die Evidence dieser Periode more completely lost than that of any other.

It was exhibited by the *Village Indians of North and South America* in barbaric splendour at the epoch of their discovery.

Diese Epoche eröffnet in *Eastern Hemisphere* mit *domestication of animals*, in der *Western* mit der *Erscheinung der Village Indians, living in large joint-tenement houses of adobe* (Luftziegel) *brick* u., in some areas, of *stone* laid in courses.

*Cultivation of maize* u. *plants by irrigation, which required artificial canals*, u. *garden beds laid out in squares, with raised ridges* to *contain the water until absorbed*.

Ein Theil dieser *Village Indians*, when discovered, *had made bronze*, bringing them near dem Iron smelting process.

The *joint-tenement house* in the *nature of a fortress*, hatte intermediate position zwischen der *stockaded village of the Lower* u. *the walled city of the Upper Status*. Als entdeckt *no cities*, in the proper sense of the word, *in America*.

*In Kriegskunst* kein grosser Fortschritt ausser *in defence*, durch die *construction of great houses* generally impregnable to Indian assault. Sie hatten *erfunden:* *quilted mantles (escaupiles), stuffed with cotton*, as a further *shield against the arrow* u. the *two-edged sword (macuahuitl), each edge having a row of angular flint points imbedded in the wooden blade*. They still used *bow u. arrow, spear, war club, flint knives u. hatchets* u. *stone implements*, obgleich they had *the copper axe u. chisel*, which for some reason came never into general use.

*Zu maize, beans, squashes u. tobacco* nun added *cotton, pepper, tomato, cacao* u. the care of *certain fruits*. A beer was made *by fermenting the juice of the maguey* (mexicanische *Agave*). Die *Iroquois hatten jedoch* ein ähnlich Getränk producirt durch *fermenting maple (Ahornart) sap*.

Durch improved methods in the ceramic art produced *earthen vessels of capacity to hold several gallons*, of fine texture and superior ornamentation. *Bowls, pots, water jars* manufactured in abundance.

*Discovery and use of the native metals*, **erst for ornaments**, finally for *implements and ustensils*, wie copper axe and chisel, dieser Periode angehörig. Melting dieser metals in *crucible*, with the probable use of *blow-pipe* (Blaserohr, Pustrohr) and *charcoal*, and *casting them in moulds*, the *production of bronze, rude stone sculptures*, the *woven garment of cotton*, (*Hakluyt:* *Coll. of Voyages.* III, 377), *houses of dressed stone, ideographs or hieroglyphs cut on the grave-posts of deceased chiefs*, the *calendar for measuring time*, the *solstitial stone for marking the seasons*, *cyclopean walls*, the *domestication of the llama, of a species of dog, of the turkey and other fowls* belong to same period in America.

A *priesthood*, organized in a *hierarchy, distinguished by a costume*; *personal gods with idols to represent them*, u. *human sacrifices* erscheinen zuerst in dieser Periode.

*Two large Indian pueblos, Mexico* u. *Cusco* jetzt, containing über 20,000 inhabitants, number unknown in the previous period.

*Aristocratic element* in society, in feeble forms, among the *chiefs, civil* and *military*, through *increased numbers under the same government*, and the growing complexity of affairs.

*Eastern hemisphere:* we find its *native tribes* in dieser Periode mit *domestic animals*, yielding them a *milk and meat subsistence*, aber wahrscheinlich ohne horticultural u. farinaceous food. *Wild horse, cow, sheep, ass, sow*; ihre *Zähmung* gab grossen Impuls; *produced in herds u. flocks* they become *source of permanent* progress. Der *effect wurde erst allgemein*, sobald *pastoral life* established for the *creation* u. *maintenance of flocks. Europa*, als hauptsächlich *Wald area*, unadapted to the pastoral state; aber die *grass plains of high Asia* u. upon the *Euphrates, the Tigris* u. other rivers of Asia, *natural homes* der *pastoral tribes*. Thither they would naturally tend; there the remote Aryan ancestors found confronting like pastoral Semitic tribes.

*Cultur v. cereals u. plants muss vorhergegangen sein ihrer migration von den grass plains in die Forestareas* v. *Westasien u. Europa*. Diese Cultur *forced upon them by the necessities of the domestic animals* now incorporated into their plan of life. (Dies vielleicht nicht Fall bei den *Celts*)

*Woven fabrics of flax and wool u.* bronze implements u. weapons erscheinen in dieser Period auch in der oestlichen Hemisphäre.

To cross the barrier into the *Upper Status of barbarism* unentbehrlich *metallic tools able to hold an edge and point*; dazu nöthig *Invention des process of Iron smelting*.

*Eigenthum*: *Grosser Zuwachs v. personal property* u. *einige changes in the relations of persons to land*. Das *territorial domain gehörte noch der Tribus in common*; aber *a portion* now set apart für *support of the government*, andrer für *religious uses*, u. noch *wichtigere portion – das, wovon Volk seine Subsistenz bezog, divided unter the several gentes*, or *communities of persons who resided in the same pueblo*. Niemand owned lands or houses in his own right mit Macht zu verkaufen u. übermachen in fee simple, wem er wollte. *Individual ownership of houses and lands* excluded by *gemeinschaftliches Eigenthum on lands durch gentes* od. *communities of persons, joint-tenement houses* u. *mode of occupation by related families*.

*Rev. Sam. Gorman*, Missionär unter den *Laguna Pueblo Indians*, in address to the Historical Society of New Mexico says:

„*the right of property* belongs to the female part of the family, and descends in that line from mother to daughter. *Their land is held in common*, […] but after a person cultivates a lot he has *personal claim to it, which he can sell to one of the community* … Their *women*, generally, *have control of the granary*, are more provident than *their Spanish neighbours* about the future. *Ordinarily they try to have a year’s provision on hand.* It is only when *two years of scarcity* succeed each other, that Pueblos, *as a community*, suffer hunger.[“] *Morgan p. 536, Note*.

*Possessory rights*, existing in individuals or families, *inalienable* ausser durch inheritance to his or her gentile heirs.

The *Moqui Village Indians*, ausser 7 large pueblos u. gardens, haben jetzt *flocks of sheep, horses and mules* u. considerable other *personal property*; manufacture *earthen vessels of many sizes* u. excellent quality, u. *woolen blankets in looms* u. mit *yarn* of their own production. Major *J. W. Powell* noticed the following case showing that dort still *the husband acquires no rights over the property of the wife*, or *over the children of the marriage*. A *Zunian* married an *Oraybe woman*, and had by her 3 children; er wohnte mit ihnen zu *Oraybe*, bis sie †. The *relatives of his deceased wife* ergriffen Besitz ihrer Kinder u. household property leaving [to] him *his horse, clothing u. weapons*, mit certain blankets, die ihm gehörten, nicht die seiner Frau. Er left the Pueblo mit Powell um nach *Santa Fé* zu gehn u. dann to return to his own people at *Zuñi*. – *Women as well as men*, not unlikely, had a *possessory right* to such rooms and sections of the pueblo houses as they occupied u. überliessen sie ihren next of kin, under certain regulations.

The *Spaniards* (writers) have left the land tenure of the southern tribes in inextricable confusion. In *unveräusserlichem common land*, belonging to a *community of persons* sahn sie *feudal estate*, im chief the *feudal lord*, in people *his vassals*; sie sahen, dass das land owned in common; nicht die *community ihrer owners selbst* – die *gens* od. *division of a gens*.

*Descent in the female line* remained still in *some of the tribes* of *Mexico u. Central America*, während im andern, probably larger Theil, übergegangen in a *descent in the male line*; letztres caused durch den influence of property. Unter den *Mayas* descent was in *male* line, dagegen schwer zu bestimmen in welcher line bei *Aztecs, Tezcucans, Tlacopans* u. *Tlascalans*.

Unter den *Village Indians* probable descent in the male line with *remains of the Archaic rule* wie in the case of the office of Teuctli. Unter ihnen zu erwarten the second *grand rule of inheritance* which distributed the property among the agnatic kindred. With descent in the male line *children of a deceased person at the head of the Agnates*, so dass sie die *greater portion* (unter den Agnates) erhielten, aber waren nicht *exclusive heirs* (mit Ausschluß der *andern Agnaten*[)]. Die Americans never entered *last (Upper) Period of Barbarism*.

### Ch. II (part IV) The three rules of inheritance continued.

*Upper Period of Barbarism* commenced in the *Eastern Hemisphere*.

*Process of smelting Iron*; trotz *Bronze* progress arrested durch want of a *metal of sufficient strength and hardness for mechanical purposes*; found zuerst in *iron*. Von da Fortschritt rapider.

#### IV) Property in the Upper Status of Barbarism.

*Ende dieser Periode property in masses* verallgemeinert – consisting in many kinds, held *by individual ownership* – durch *settled agriculture, manufactures, local trade, foreign commerce*; aber:

*Old common tenure of lands* had not given place, ausser in part, to *Separateigenthum*.

In *diesem Status* entsprang *Slavery; it stands directly connected with the production of property*. Out of it (slavery) came the *patriarchal family* of the *Hebrew type* u. the *similar family der Latin tribes under paternal power*, wie auch a *modified form of the same family* unter den *Grecian tribes*.

Hence, namentlich aber *von increased abundance of subsistence, through field agriculture*, nations began to develop, zählten *viele 1000<sup>nds</sup>* unter one government, wo früher nur *a few 1000<sup>nds</sup>. Struggle* für die *possession der most desirable territories* intensified durch die *localization of tribes in fixed areas*, u. *in fortified cities*, mit dem increase der Volkszahl. Advanced *Kriegskunst* u. vermehrte die *rewards of prowess*. Diese changes indicate the approach of civilization.

*Ersten Gesetze* der *Griechen, Römer, Hebräer – nach Beginn der Civilization* – verwandelten chiefly nur *in legal enactments* the results die *ihre previous experience verkörpert hatte in usages u. customs*.

*Gegen Ende der Upper Period of Barbarism* Tendenz zu *2 Formen von Ownership*, nämlich, *durch Staat* u. *durch Individuen. Lands*, unter den *Griechen*, still held, *einige durch die tribes in common*, andre *durch die phratry in common* für religious uses, *andre* durch die *gens in common*, aber die *bulk der lands* had *fallen under individual ownership in severalty*. Zur *Zeit Solon’s* war *Athenian society* noch *gentil, lands* in general held durch individuals who had *learnt to mortgage* them. (*Plut. in Solon c. XV.* »Σεμνύνεται γὰρ Σόλων ἐν τούτοις, ὅτι τῆς τε *προϋποκειμένης* (verpfändeten) γῆς ⦗*ὅρους* = die Marken, die der Schuldner bei Haus od. Acker setzen musste, worauf er Geld entlehnt hatte, mit einer Schrift, welche seinen Namen neben der Summe angab⦘

*ὅρους ἀνεῖλε πολλαχῆ πεπηγότας·* *πρόσθεν δὲ δουλεύουσα*, *νῦν ἐλεύθερα.*«)

The *Roman tribes, from their first establishment*, had a *public domain, Ager romanus*; while lands were held by the *curia* for religious uses, by the *gens*, u. by *individuals in severalty*. Nachdem diese *social corporations* ausgestorben, *the lands held by them in common gradually became private property*.

*Diese several forms of ownership* show dass die *älteste land tenure was die in common durch den tribe*; nach Beginn *ihrer Cultivation*, ein *Theil der tribe lands divided unter die gentes*, jede wovon *held their portion in common*; diesem folgten im Lauf der Zeit *allotments to individuals* u. diese *allotments finally ripened into individual ownership in severalty*.

*Personal property*, generally, was subject to *individual ownership*.

*Monogamian family* erschien in *Upper Status of barbarism* herausentwickelt aus *Syndyasmian* family; hing intimately zus. mit *increase of property* u. *usages in respect to its inheritance. Descent changed to the male line*; *aber alles Eigenthum, real u. personal*, blieb, wie seit time immemorial, *hereditary in gens*.

*Ilias* In der *Ilias* (V, 90) mentioned *fences* *around cultivated fields*, *(IX, 577)* an *enclosure of 50 acres* *(πεντηκοντόγυος)* half for *vines*, remainder for *tillage*, (XIV, 121) Tydeus lives in a mansion rich in resources, and had corn producing fields in abundance.

(*Morgan* irrt sich, wenn er glaubt, das blosse fencing beweise Privatgrundeigenthum) *Breeds of horses* already distinguished for particular excellence. (V, 266, 267) „sheep of a rich man standing countless in the fold.“ (IV, 433)

*Coined money unknown*, daher *trade* noch *by barter*, wie in folgenden lines:

> »Ἔνθεν ἄρ’ *οἰνίζοντο* (*οἰνίζω:* in medium *Wein kaufen*) *κάρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοὶ*,  
> *Ἄλλοι μὲν χαλκῷ (aere)*, *ἄλλοι δ’ αἴθωνι (splendido) σιδήρῳ*,  
> *Ἄλλοι δὲ ῥινοῖς* (pellibus), *ἄλλοι δ’ αὐτοῖσι βόεσσιν*,  
> *ἄλλοι δ’ ἀνδραπόδεσσι*.« (Il. l. VII v. 472–75)

```
         Erz
hier     Eisen
         Felle     = wine.   (III Aequivalentform   ; u. wine = Erz od. Eisen od. Felle od. Ochsen
         Sklaven              wo wine = Geld.)
                             (II Equivalentform)
```

*Gold in bars* named as *passing by weight and estimated by talents*. (Il. XII, 274, v. Morgan citirt; steht da *nicht*.) Mentioned: *manufactured articles of gold, silver, brass and iron, textile fabrics of linen and woolen* in many forms, *houses, palaces* etc.

*Inheritance*: Nach Erreichung so grosser Quantität in *Upper Status of Barbarism* v. *houses u. lands, flocks u. herds*, u. *exchangeable commodities* and *held by individual ownership question of inheritance* pressed bis *right* den facts entsprach. Die *domestic animals* a *possession of greater value* than alle früheren Arten property zusammen; *served for food, exchangeable for commodities, usable for redeeming decaptives*, for *paying fines*, and in *religious sacrifices*; *capable of indefinite multiplication in numbers – their possession revealed to the human mind the first conception of wealth*. Folgte in course of time the *systematical cultivation of the earth, tending to identify the family mit dem soil*, and *render it **a*** **property-making organization**; fand bald expression in *Latin, Grecian, Hebrew tribes*, in the *patriarchal family, involving slaves u. servants. Labor of father and children* became more and more *incorporated with the land*, the *production of domestic animals*, and the *creation of merchandise*, it tended to *individualize the family* u. suggested *the superior claims of children to the inheritance of the property they had assisted in creating*. Vor der Landkultur *flocks u. herds* fiel naturally *under the joint ownership of persons united in a group*, on a *basis of kin, for subsistence. Agnatic inheritance* was apt to assert itself in this condition. Aber sobald *land had become the subject of property*, and *allotments to individuals had resulted in individual ownership*, was sure to *supervene upon agnatic inheritance: Third great rule of inheritance, giving property to the children of the deceased owner*.

When *field culture* bewiesen hatte, dass die *ganze Oberfläche der Erde could be made the subject of property owned by individuals in severalty* u. *Familienhaupt* became *the natural center of accumulation*, the *new property career of mankind* inaugurated; fully done *before the close of the Later Period of Barbarism*; übte einen grossen *Einfluss auf human mind*, rief *new elements of character* wach; property became *tremendous passion* im barbarian des heroic age. *(»booty and beauty«)* Dagegen nicht haltbar *archaic* u. *later usages*. ⦗Herr Loria! voilà the working of passion!⦘ *Monogamy* had *assured* the *paternity of* *children* u. maintained u. asserted their *exclusive right to inherit the property of their deceased fathers*.

*Germans*, when discovered, in *Upper Status of Barbarism, used iron*, in limited quantities; had *flocks and herds; cultivated cereals; manufactured coarse textile fabrics of linen and woolen*, had *not attained [to] the idea of individual ownership in lands*. Folgt daher: *individual property in land unknown in Asia u. Europe* in *Middle Period of Barbarism*, came in in *Upper Period*.

Bei *Hebrew tribes* individual ownership in lands existed before the commencement of their civilization. They came out of barbarism, wie die Aryan tribes, mit possession of *domestic animals* u. *cereals, iron u. brass, gold and silver, fictile wares u. textile fabrics*. Aber ihre *knowledge of field agriculture* limited in Zeit Abrahams. Nach Reconstruction der Hebrew Society, nach dem Exodus, on *basis of consanguine tribes*, to which on reaching Palestine *territorial areas* were assigned, shows that civilization found them under *gentile institutions*, below a knowledge of *political society. Inheritance* was strictly in the *phratry* u. probably in *the gens* *„the house of the father“* … After children had acquired an exclusive inheritance, *daughters succeeded in default of sons; marriage* would then *transfer their own property from their own gens to that of their husband*, unless some restraint, in *the case of heiresses*, was put on the right. Presumptively u. naturally *marriage within the gens* prohibited; question came *before Moses* as a *question of Hebrew inheritance*, vor *Solon* as a *question of Athenian inheritance*, the *gens claiming a* paramount right to its *retention within its membership*; u. beide entschieden in demselben Sinn. Same question must have turned up in *Rome* u. in part met by the rule that a *marriage of a female* worked a *diminutio capitis* u. with it a *forfeiture of agnatic rights*.

*Andre question involved in this issue:* war *marriage to be restricted by the rule forbidding it within the gens*, or *become free*, the *degree*, and not the *fact of kin*, being the *measure of limitation* ! Letztre Lösung siegte.

*Zelophehad* starb, *liess Töchter*, keine *Söhne* u. die inheritance given to the former. Später diese Töchter about to marry *ausserhalb the tribe of Joseph*, wozu sie belonged; *the members of the tribe* objected to such a *transfer of property*, brachten Sache vor Moses.

Diese Burschen präsentiren die Sache so:

„If they be married to any of the sons of the *other* tribes of the children of Israel, then *shall the inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers*, and shall be *put to the inheritance of the tribe* whereunto they are received: *so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.*“ (*Numbers*, XXXVI, III) Mouses antwortet:

„The *tribe* of the sons of Joseph has spoken well. This *is* the thing which the Lord doth command concerning the daughters of *Zelophehad*, saying, „Let them marry to whom they think best: only *to the family of the tribe of their father* shall they marry. So shall not *the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe*: for *every one of the children of Israel* shall keep himself to the *inheritance of the tribe of his fathers*. And every daughter that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel shall be wife unto *one of the family of the tribe of her father*, that the children of Israel may enjoy every one the inheritance of his *fathers*.“ (*Numbers*, XXXVI, 5–9) They were required to marry into their own phratry, not necessarily into their own gens. The daughters of Zelophehad were *„married to their father’s brother’s sons“* (*Numbers* XXXVI, 11) who were not only members of their *own phratry*, but also of their *own gens*; they were also their next agnates.

Früher hatte *Moses* etablirt *die rule of inheritance u. reversion* thus:

„And thou shalt speak to the children of Israel, saying, *If a man die* and *have no son*, then you shall cause *his inheritance to pass unto his daughters*. And if he have no *daughter*, then you shall give his inheritance *unto his brothers*. And if he have *no brethren*, then you shall give his inheritance unto *his father’s brethren*. And if his father have *no brethren*, then you shall give it *unto his kinsman*, that is *next to him of his family*, and he shall possess it.“ (Numbers, XXVII, 8–11)

Hier heirs: 1) the *children*; aber scheint that *the sons took the property* subject to the obligation of maintaining the daughters. Wir finden elsewhere that the *eldest son* had a *double portion*.

2) *the agnates in their order of nearness*: a) the *brethren of the deceased*, in default of *children* des Verstorbnen; u., wenn er *keine brethren* hatte b) the *brethren of the father of the deceased*.

3) the *gentiles*, also in the order of nearness „the kinsman that *is next to him* of his family“. The *„family of the tribe“* is the analogue of the *phratry*; also *property*, in default of children u. agnates, went to *the nearest phrator* des defunct owner, – diese Erbfolge *excludes cognates von inheritance*; a *phrator*, more distant than a *father’s brother*, would inherit *in preference to the children of a sister of the deceased*. Descent in the male line and the property must be hereditary in the gens. The *father did not inherit from his son*, nor the *grandfather from his grandson*. Hierin u. fast in allem übrigen *Mosaic Law* agrees mit dem *Law of Twelve Tables*.

Später the *Levitical law* established *marriage upon a new basis, independent of gentile law*; verbot Ehe *innerhalb gewisser Grade v. consanguinity u. affinity*, declared it *free* beyond these degrees; dies entwurzelte gentile usages mit Bezug auf Ehe bei den Hebräern, wurde später *the rule of Christian nations*.

*Solon’s Gesetze über inheritances* substantiell selben wie die von Mouses. Beweist, dass die *früheren usages, customs, institutions der Hebräer u.* *Griechen* dieselben in Bezug auf Eigenthum. In *Solon’s Zeit, 3<sup>d</sup> great rule of inheritance* fully established unter *Atheniensern*; *sons took the estates* ihres deceased *father* mit obligation of *maintaining the daughters* u. *apportioning them suitably on their marriage*. Wenn *no sons*, erbten die *Töchter equally*; dadurch created *heiresses (ἐπικλήρες)* by *investing women mit estates*; Solon enacted that *the heiress should marry her nearest male agnate*, although they belonged *to the same gens*, and *Ehe unter ihnen* früher *verboten* durch usage. Instances occurred wo der *nächste Agnat, obgleich verheirathet, put away his wife*, in order to marry the heiress, and thus gain the estate. Protomachus im Eubulides des Demosthenes Beispiel. *(Demost. ag* *ain* *st Eubulides, 41)* Wenn keine children, *estates to the agnates*, in their default *to the gentiles* des defunct. *Property was retained within the gens* as *inflexibly among the Athenians* wie unter *Hebrews* u. Romans. *Solon* turned into law, was vorher established usage.

Unter *Solon* erscheinen *testamentary dispositions* (established ? by him); *Plutarch* sagt es sei *früher nicht erlaubt* gewesen. (Romulus: *754–717* a.C., 1–37 der Stadt Rom; *Solon* Gesetzgeber Athen’s about *594* a.C.)

»Εὐδοκίμησε δὲ κἀν τῷ περὶ διαθηκῶν νόμῳ *·* *πρότερον* *γὰρ* *οὐκ* *ἐξῆν, ἀλλ’ ἐν* *τῷ* γένει τοῦ τεθνηκότος *ἔδει* *τὰ* *χρήματα* *καὶ* *τὸν* *οἶκον* *καταμένειν*, ὁ δ’ ᾧ βούλεταί τις *ἐπιτρέψας*, *εἰ* *μὴ* *παῖδες* *εἶεν* *αὐτῷ, δοῦναι* *τὰ* *αὑτοῦ, φιλίαν* *τε* *συγγενείας* *ἐτίμησε* *μᾶλλον* καὶ *χάριν* **ἀνάγκης**, καὶ **τὰ χρήματα κτήματα τῶν ἐχόντων ἐποίησεν**.« *(Plut. Vita Solon. c. 21)*

This law recognized the *absolute individual ownership of property by the person while living*, to which jetzt added *testamentar. Verfügung*, when *no children* da; aber das *gentile right* remained paramount so long [as] *children existed to represent him in the gens*. At all events muss die custom früher dagewesen sein (testamentliche), da Solon in *positive law – customary law* verwandelte.

*Roman Law of 12 tables*, first promulgated *449 a. Ch.*; durch sie anerkannt:

*Intestaterbrecht:* »Intestatorum hereditates lege XII tabularum primum *ad suos heredes pertinent*.« (*Gajus, inst.*, III, 1) (mit den children war *wife* des defunct *coheiress*) »Si nullus sit *suorum* heredum, tunc hereditas pertinet *ex eadem lege XII tabularum ad agnatos*.« (*Gaj.* III, 9) »Si *nullus agnatus sit, eadem lex* XII tabularum *gentiles* ad hereditatem vocat.« (ib. III, 17) Seems a *reasonable inference* dass *hereditas* wirklich *grade in der umgekehrten Ordnung* primitiv bei den Römern existirt hatte als in den 12 Tafeln; *inheritance by gentes* vor der der Agnaten; *die der Agnaten* vor der exclusiven der Kinder.

In *der later Period of Barbarism* kam *Aristocratie* auf, durch *Entwicklung der individuality of persons, increase of wealth now possessed by individuals in masses*; *slavery*, by permanently degrading a portion of the people, *tended to establish contrasts of condition unknown in the previous ethnical periods*; dazu, with *property and official position* – schuf sentiment of aristocracy, *antagonistisch* den *democratical principles fostered by the gentes*.

*Im Upper Status of Barbarism*, the *office of chief* in its different grades, *originally hereditary in the gens and elective among its members*, passed, very likely, unter *Grecian u. Roman tribes* von father to son as a rule. Aber keine evidence, *dass so by hereditary right*.

Die blosse *possession* jedoch der *offices* of *archon, phylo-basileus* or *βασιλεύς* unter den Griechen, u. v. *princeps* u. *rex* unter den *Römern*, hatte Tendenz to strengthen in their families the sentiment of aristocracy. Obgleich es permanent existence gewann, nicht stark genug to *change essentially the democratic constitution of the early governments of these tribes*.

Heutzutag, wo property so immense u. seine forms so *diversified*, it has become, on the part of the people, an *unmanageable power*. »*The human mind stands bewildered in the presence of its own creation.* The time will come, nevertheless, *when* human intelligence *will rise to the mastery over property* … A *mere property career is not the final destiny of mankind*. The *time which has passed away since civilization began* is but a fragment (u. *zwar sehr kleines*) of the past duration of man’s existence; and but *a fragment of the ages yet to come*. **The dissolution of society bids fair to become the termination of a career of which property is the end and aim; because such a career contains the elements of self-destruction** … It (a higher plan of society) *will be a revival, in a higher form, of the liberty, equality and fraternity of the ancient gentes*.« (552)

»With one principle of intelligence and one physical form, in virtue of a common origin, the results of human experience have been substantially *the same in all times and areas in the same ethnical status*.« (552)

---

## Part II (Growth of the Idea of Government.)

### Ch. I. Organization of Society upon the Basis of sex.

*Organization into male and female classes (also organization upon the basis of sex)* now found in full vitality among the *Australian aborigines*. Low down in savagery *community of husbands and women*, within prescribed lines, was the central principle of the social system: the *marital rights (jura conjugialia)* ⦗Romans distinguish: *connubium*, related to *marriage* as a *civil institution*, u. *conjugium*, the *mere physical union⦘* *established in the group*. ⦗Emancipation von diesen »rights« etc slowly accomplished durch *movements resulting in unconscious reformations*; *»worked out unconsciously through natural selection«.*⦘

*In Darling River District – north of Sydney* – die nachfolgende *organization into classes on the basis of sex* and the *inchoate organization into gentes on the basis of kin* unter den *Australian aborigines* speaking the *Kamilaroi language*. Wide spread selbiges unter other Australian tribes; evident from internal considerations, *that the male u. female classes older than the gentes*, die, among the Kamilaroi, are in *process of overthrowing the classes*. The *class in its male and female branches* is the *unit of the social system* u. the *central position*, während die *gentes inchoate* u. advancing to completeness through encroachments upon the former. Selbe *Organization upon sex* not yet been found under savage tribes *out of Australia*, weil diese insular savages slowly developing in their secluded habitat, die *most archaic* (organized) form am längsten erhalten haben.

*The Kamilaroi* divided *in 6 gentes*, standing with relation to marriage in *2 divisions*:

| I) | 1) *Iguana (Duli)* | II) | 4) *Emu* (*Dinoun*) |
|---|---|---|---|
|  | 2) *Kangaroo* (*Murriira*). ⦗*Padymelon*, a species of Kangaroo⦘ |  | 5) *Bandicoot* (*Bilba*) |
|  | 3) *Opossum* (Mute) |  | 6) *Blacksnake* (*Nurai*) |

Ursprünglich die ersten 3 gentes *not allowed* to *intermarriage with each* [other], weil sie waren *subdivisions of one original gens*, durften aber marry into either of the other gentes u. vice versa. Dies nun modified unter den Kamilaroi, aber nicht so weit dass marriage erlaubt mit allen gentes ausser dem gens des individual. *Absolute prohibition for males or females to marry into their own gens. Descent in female line, which assigns children to the line of their mother.* These features of *archaic form of gens*.

Aber ausserdem existirt weitere u. ältere division des people in *8 classes*, *4 exclusively of males* u. 4 *exclusively of females*. It is accompanied with a *regulation in respect to marriage and descent* which [obstructs] *the gens* (zeigt, dass deren organization *later*…) Marriage is restricted to *a portion of the males of one gens with a portion of the females of another gens*, während in entwickelter *gentile organization* members of each gens allowed to marry persons of the opposite sex in all the gentes except their own.

*Die Klassen sind:*

| Male | Female |
|---|---|
| 1) Ippai | 1) Ippata |
| 2) Kumbo | 2) Buta |
| 3) Murri | 3) Mata |
| 4) Kubbi | 4) Kapota |

Alle Glieder, je einer der 4 männlichen Klassen, sind, *of whatever gens they may be, Brüder* v. einander, so alle *Ippais Brüder* etc, weil alle *supposed descended from a common female ancestor*. Ebenso alle Glieder je einer der 4 weiblichen Klassen *Schwestern v. einander for same reason* (descent from common mother), to *whatever gens they may belong*.

Ferner all *Ippais u. Ippatas Brüder u. Schwestern* von einander, ob sie nun *children der same mother or collateral consanguinei*, ebenso verhält es sich für die folgenden mit *denselben numbers bezeichneten Klassen*. If a Kumbo u. Buta meet, die sich nie vorher gesehn, begrüssen sie sich als Bruder u. Schwester. Die Kamilaroi sind also organized in *4 great primary groups of brothers and sisters*, each *group being composed of a male and female branch*, but *intermingled over the areas of their occupation*. The classes *embody the germ of gens*, so far as z. B. *Ippai u. Ippata* in fact a *single class* in 2 branches bilden *u. not can intermarry with each other*; aber keine realisirte Gens, weil sie fall unter *2 names* (wie *Ippai* u. Ippata), each of which is integral for certain purposes, u. weil *their children take different names from their own*.

Die *classes* stand to each other in a *different order with respect* to *right of marriage or rather cohabitation* (since brothers and sisters are not allowed to intermarry), *viz.* so:

| 1) Ippai | can marry | 4) Kapota, | and no other | Später – as shown hereafter, dies scheme so far modified, that *each class* of *males* gets right of intermarriage mit an additional class of females; dies encroachment von gens upon class. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2) Kumbo | " " | 3) Mata | " " |  |
| 3) Murri | " " | 2) Buta | " " |  |
| 4) Kubbi | " " | 1) Ippata | " " |  |

Each male in the selection of a wife so limited to ¼ of all the Kamilaroi wives. *Theoretisch* jede Kapota the wife of every Ippai. *Rev. Fison* quotes von a letter of *Mr. T. E. Lance* (der lange in Australien gelebt): „if a Kubbi meets a stranger Ippata, they address each other as *Goleer* = *Spouse* … A Kubbi thus meeting an Ippata, even though she were of another tribe, would treat her as his wife, and his right to do so would be recognized by her tribe.“

Under this *conjugal system* ¼ aller males united in marriage mit ¼ aller females of the Kamilaroi tribes.

Während die *Kinder* blieben in *gens ihrer Mutter*, gingen sie über in *eine andre Klasse*, in *selber gens, different from that of either parent*.

| Male | Female | Male | Female |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1) Ippai marries |  | 4) Kapota; | their children are | 3) Murri | u. | 3) Mata |
| 2) Kumbo | " | 3) Mata | " " " | 4) Kubbi | u. | 4) Kapota |
| 3) Murri " | " " | 2) Buta " " " | " " " | 1) Ippai | u. | 1) Ippata |
| 4) Kubbi | " " | 1) Ippata " " " | " " " | 2) Kumbo | u. | 2) Buta. |

*Folgt man der female line*, so Kapota (4) ist die Mutter of *Mata* (3) u. *Mata* (5) ist hinwiederum die Mutter of Kapota; ebenso Buta (2) Mutter von Ippata (1) u. hinwiederum Ippata (1) die Mutter von Buta (2). Selbes mit male class; da aber *descent* in *the female line*, leiten sich die *Kamilaroi tribes* selbst ab von *2 supposed female ancestors*, which laid the foundation for 2 original gentes. – By tracing the descents still further found *that the blood of each class passes through all classes*.

Obgleich jedes Individuum einen der oben erwähnten class names führt, so *daneben the single personal name* common among savages as well as barbarous tribes.

The gentile organization supervened naturally upon the classes as a higher organization, *by simply enfolding them unchanged*, encroaches then upon them.

The *classes* are in *pairs* von *brothers u. sisters derived from each other* u. die *gentes*, vermittelst der classes, sind auch in pairs wie folgt:

| Gentes |  | Male |  | Female |  | Male |  | Female |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1) Iguana | all are | Murri | u. | Mata | oder | Kubbi | und | Kapota |
| 2) Emu | " " | Kumbo | u. | Buta | oder | Ippai | u. | Ippata |
| 3) Kangaroo | " " | Murri | und | Mata | od. | Kubbi | u. | Kapota |
| 4) Bandicoot | " " | Kumbo | u. | Buta | oder | Ippai | u. | Ippata. |
| 5) Opossum | " " | Murri | u. | Mata | oder | Kubbi | u. | Kapota |
| 6) Blacksnake | " " | Kumbo | u. | Buta | od. | Ippai | u. | Ippata |

The connection of children with a particular gens is proven by the law of marriage. So *Iguana-Mata* must marry *Kumbo*; her children are *Kubbi u. Kapota*, u. nothwendig Iguana in gens, because descent in the female line. *Iguana-Kapota* must marry *Ippai*, her children are *Murri u. Mata* u. ditto Iguana in gens. So *Emu-Ippata* must marry *Kubbi*, her children are *Kumbo u. Buta* u. of the *Emu gens*. So die gens maintained by keeping in its membership the children of all its female members. Ebenso mit den remaining gentes. Each gens is made up theoretically of 2 *supposed female ancestors*, and contains 4 of the 8 classes. Wahrscheinlich ursprünglich nur 2 male u. 2 female classes, set opposite to each other in respect to the right of marriage; and that the 4 afterward *subdivided* into 8. The classes evidently as an anterior organization nachher arranged within the gentes, not formed by the *subdivision of the gentes*.

Da die *Iguana, Kangaroo u. Opossum gentes* are counterparts to each other in the classes they contain, so *subdivisions of an original gens*; ebenso andrerseits *Emu, Bandicoot u. Blacksnake*; so *2 original gentes* mit dem right in *each to marry into the other*, but *not in itself*. Dies confirmed durch das fact, dass 1), 3), 5) originally nicht intermarry durften unter einander, ebensowenig wie 2), 4), 6). When the three *were one gens* intermarriage unter ihnen verboten; dies followed the *subdivisions*, because they were of the same descent, although under different gentile names. Dasselbe exact gefunden bei den Seneca-Iroquois.

Da marriage restricted to particular classes, when there were but 2 gentes, one half of all the females of one were the wives of one half of all the males of the other. After their subdivision into 6 the benefit of marrying out of the gens was neutralized by the presence of the classes mit ihren restrictions; hence continuous in-and-in marriages, beyond the immediate degree of brother and sister.

*z. B.* descents of *Ippai u. Kapota* giving to each intermediate pair 2 children, a male and a female, dann:

1) *Ippai* marries *Kapota*; their children *Murri u. Mata*. Die letztern 2 können nicht einander heirathen.

2) *Murri marries Buta* … their children: *Ippai u. Ippata*; *Mata marries Kumbo* … their children: *Kubbi u. Kapota*;

3) *Ippai* marries his cousin *Kapota* u. *Kubbi* marries his cousin *Ippata*; their children are respectively *Murri u. Mata* u. *Kumbo u. Buta*; von diesen die *Murris* marry the *Butas*, second cousins, etc. In this condition the classes not only intermarry constantly, but are compelled to do so through this organization upon sex. – *The organization into classes seems to have been directed to the single object of breaking up the intermarriage* of brothers and sisters. – *Innovation:* allowing *each triad of gentes to intermarry* with each other, to a limited extent; and secondly, to *marry into classes*, not before permitted. So *Iguana-Murri* can now marry *Mata* in the *Kangaroo* gens, his collateral sister etc. Each class of males in each triad of gentes seems now to be allowed one additional class of females in the 2 remaining gentes of the same triad, from which they were before excluded.

Wherever the middle or lower statum of savagery is uncovered, *marriages of entire groups* under usages defining the groups, have been discovered … the necessities of their condition would set a practical limit to the size of the group living together under this custom.

»*Cases of physical and mental deterioration in tribes and nations* must be admitted, for reasons which are known, *but they never interrupted the general progress of mankind* … *The arts by which savages maintain their lives are remarkably persistent. They are never lost until superseded by others higher in degree.* By *the practice of these arts*, and *the experience gained through social organizations, mankind have advanced under a necessary law of development*, although their progress may have been substantially imperceptible for centuries … tribes and nations have perished through the disruption of their ethnic life.« (p. 60) Among other tribes (non-Australian) *the gens* seems to have advanced in proportion to the *curtailment* of *the conjugal system*.

»We have the *same brain, perpetuated by reproduction, which worked in the skulls of barbarians and savages in by-gone ages*; and it has come down to us *ladened and saturated* with the thoughts, aspirations and passions, with which it was busied through the intermediate periods. It is the same brain grown older and larger with the experiences of the ages … Outcrops of barbarism (wie z. B. Mormonism) are so many revelations of its ancient proclivities … *a species of mental* *atavism*.« (61)

---

### P. II Ch. II The Iroquois Gens.

Aelteste *organization – social*, founded upon *gentes, phratries, tribes*; so gentile society created, wo government dealt with persons through their *relations to a gens or tribe*. These relations *purely personal*. Kömmt nachher a *political organization*, founded *upon territory u. property*; hier government deals with persons through their relations to territory, wie z. B. *the township, the county, and the state*. (62)

*Gentile Organization* found in Asia, Europe, Africa, America, Australia; dauert bis *political society*, die erst mit der Civilization eintritt. Irish *Sept*, Scottish *Clan*, die *phrara* der Albanians, *ganas* des Sanscrit etc selbes was American Indian gens.

*Gens*, *γένος* *u. ganas (lat. gr. Sansk.)* bedeuten alike *kin*; enthalten dasselbe Element as *gigno, γίγνομαι, ganamai* (*beget* alle 3); implying an immediate common descent of the members of a gens. A gens daher a *body of consanguinei*. Descended from the same common ancestor, distinguished by a gentile name, and bound together by affinities of blood. It includes a moiety only of such descendants; wo *descent in female line*, wie überall in archaic period, gens zusammengesetzt of *a supposed female ancestor and her children*, with the *children* of *her female descendants*, through females, in perpetuity; umgekehrt, wo *descent in the male line, into which the female* line was changed after the appearance of property in masses. Der moderne *Familienname* ist selbst *a survival of the gentile name*, with descent in the male line. *The modern family*, as expressed by its name, *is an unorganized gens*; with the *bond of kin broken*, and its members as widely dispersed as the family name is found. *Final form of gens* enthält two changes: 1) *change from female to male line of descent*; 2) *change of the inheritance of the property* of a deceased member *from his gentiles* to his *agnatic kindred* u. finally *to his children*.

*Gens in its archaic form now exists among the American aborigines.*

Wo *gentile institutions prevailed* – and prior to the establishment of political society – we find *peoples or nations in gentile societies*, and nothing beyond. *»The state did not exist.«* (p. 67) As the *gens*, the unit of organization, was *essentially democratical*, so necessarily the *phratry* composed of gentes, the *tribe* composed of phratries, and the gentile society formed by the *confederation* or (was höhere Form) *coalescing of tribes*. ⦗wie die *3 röm.* in Rom, the *4 tribes of the Athenians in Attica*, the *3 Dorian tribes* in Sparta, all of them on some *common territory*⦘

In der *archaic form der gens* die children einer Frau gehören *zu ihrer gens*; ebenso die children ihrer Töchter, Grosstöchter etc aber die *children ihrer Söhne*, deren Grosssöhne etc belong to *other gentes, nämlich denen ihrer Mütter*. In the *Middle Status of Barbarism* (mit *Syndyasmian* family) began die *Indian tribes* to *change the female line to the male*; selbes im *Upper Status of Barbarism* bei *Greek* tribes (except the *Lycians*), u. den *Italian tribes* (except *the Etruskans*).

*Intermarriage in Gens prohibited.* Die *Gensinstitution beginnt nothwendig mit 2 gentes*; the males and females of one gens marrying the females and males of the other; the *children*, following *the gentes of their respective mothers, would be divided between them*. *Resting on the bond of kin* as its *cohesive principle*, gens verleiht jedem individual member *that personal protection which no other existing power could give*.

*Gentes of the Iroquois* taken as standard exemplification in der *Ganowánian* family. When discovered the *Iroquois* in the *lower status of barbarism*; *manufactured nets twine and rope from filaments of bark; wove belts* and *burden straps*, with *warp and woof*, vom selben Material; machten *earthern vessels* u. *pipes* von *clay mixed with siliceous materials* u. *hardened by fire*, some of them *ornamented* mit *rude medallions*; *cultivated maize, beans, squashes* u. *tobacco in garden beds*, made *unleavened bread von pounded maize which they boiled in earthern vessels* (these *loaves* or *cakes* about 6 inches in diameter u. an inch thick); *tanned skins* into *leather* with which they manufactured *kilts, leggins* u. *moccasins*; used *bow and arrow* and *warclub* als Hauptwaffen; used *flint, stone u. bone implements*, wore *skin garments*, were expert *hunters u. fishermen*. Constructed *long joint-tenement houses* large enough to accommodate *5, 10, 20 families* u. *each household practised communism in living*; were *unacquainted* mit the *use of stone or adobe-brick in house architecture u. mit dem use der native metals*. In mental capacity u. general advancement waren they der *representative branch der Indian family north of New Mexico*. *Military* „their *career was simply terrific*. *They were the scourge of God upon the aborigines of the Continent.*“

In lapse of time *number u. names* der *respective gentes* have slightly varied, their largest number being 8.

| I) *Senecas:* | 1) Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Turtle. 4) Beaver. 5) Deer. 6) Snipe. 7) Heron. 8) Hawk. |
|---|---|
| II) *Cayugas:* | 1) Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Turtle. 4) Beaver. 5) Deer. 6) Snipe. 7) Eel. 8) Hawk. |
| III) Onondagas: | 1) Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Turtle. 4) Beaver. 5) Deer. 6) Snipe. 7) Eel. 8) Ball. |
| IV) Oneidas. | 1) Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Turtle. |
| V) Mohawks. | 1) Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Turtle. |
| VI) Tuscaroras. | 1) Gray Wolf. 2) Bear. 3) Great Turtle. 4) Beaver. 5) Yellow Wolf. 6) Snipe. 7) Eel. 8) Little Turtle. |

Die Changes zeigen, dass certain gentes in some of the tribes became extinct u. dass andre *formed by segmentation of overfull gentes*.

Das *jus gentilicium* besteht [in]:

1) *The right der gens of electing its sachem und chiefs.*

Fast bei allen American Indian tribes *2 grades of chiefs, sachem* u. *common chiefs*; *von diesen 2 primary grades all other grades* were varieties; *elected in each gens from among its members*, a *son* could not be elected to succeed his father, wo *descent in the female line*, weil er *belonged to a different gens*. *Office of Sachem* hereditary in the gens, insofern it was filled so oft als a vacancy occurred; *office of chief* non-hereditary, weil bestowed in reward of personal merit u. died with the individual. *Duties of Sachem* confined to *peace*, konnte nicht in Krieg ziehn as a Sachem. The *chiefs*, raised to office for personal bravery, wisdom in affairs, or for eloquence in council, gewöhnlich die superior class in ability, aber *nicht in authority over the gens*. The relation des *Sachem* was primarily *to the Gens*, wovon er *the official head*; die *des Chief* primarily *to the tribe*, – von dessen council er wie der Sachem members.

The office of Sachem *älter als gens*, gehört ebenso zu *punaluan group* or even the *anterior horde*. In the *gens* the duties of this office *paternal*; in the gens elective among its male members. Dem Indian system of consanguinity entsprechend *office of Sachem* passed von *brother zu brother*, or from *uncle to nephew* u. sehr selten von *grandfather to grandson*. The choice, by *free suffrage of both males and females of adult ages*, fiel gewöhnlich auf einen *Bruder des deceased Sachem* od. *einen der Söhne* einer Schwester; sein eigner Bruder od. der Sohn einer eignen Schwester meist preferred. Zwischen *several brothers*, own or collateral, on the one hand u. den sons of several sisters, own or collateral, on the other, no priority of right, da alle male members der gens equally eligible.

Hatte die *gens* einen gewählt *(Sachem)* (unter den Seneca-Iroquois z. B.), so noch erfordert assent der 7 remaining gentes. These met for the purpose by phratries; wenn sie die Wahl to confirm verweigerten, musste die gens neu wählen; wurde er accepted, so election complete; aber der neue Sachem musste still *»be* *raised up«* (i.e. invested with his office), durch a *council of the confederacy*, before he could enter upon his duty; it was their method of conferring the *imperium*.

Der *Sachem of a gens* was *ex officio a member of the council of the tribe, and of the higher council of the confederacy*. Selbe Method of election u. confirmation for the *office of a chief*; aber a general council never *convened* to *raise up chiefs* below the grade of a sachem; they awaited the time when sachems were elected.

*Chiefs in each gens* usually proportioned to the number of its members; unter den Seneca-Iroquois 1 chief for about every 50 persons; der Seneca nun in New York einige 3000, haben 8 Sachems u. about 60 chiefs; the proportionate number jetzt grösser als früher. *Anzahl der gentes* in a tribe meist entsprechend der Bevölkerungszahl des tribe; die Zahl der gentes varies in different tribes von 3 unter Delawares u. Munsees to über 20 unter Ojibwas u. Creeks; 6, 8, 10 waren gewöhnliche Anzahlen.

2) *Recht Sachems u. Chiefs abzusetzen.*

Dies Recht reserved by the members of the gens; office nominally »for life«, tenure practically »during good behaviour«. Die installation eines Sachem hiess: *„putting on the horns“*, seine Absetzung *„taking off the horns“*. Sobald ein Sachem od. chief in due form abgesetzt durch gens, war er von nun *Privatperson*. *Council of the tribe* konnte auch *Sachems u. chiefs absetzen*, ohne zu warten auf action der gens, and even against its wishes.

3) *Obligation not to marry in the gens.*

Diese rule noch inflexible bei den Iroquois. – Bei Entstehung der gens *brothers were intermarried to each other’s wives in a group, and sisters to each other’s husbands in a group*; gens sought to exclude *brothers and sisters from the marriage relation* by prohibiting to marry in the gens.

4) *Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members der gens.*

Im *Status of Savagery property* beschränkt auf *personal effects*; im *Lower Status of Barbarism* kamen noch hinzu *possessory rights in joint-tenement houses u. gardens*. The *most valuable personal articles buried mit body des deceased owner*.

Im übrigen: *property to remain in the gens* and to be *distributed among* the *gentiles des deceased owner*. Dies theoretisch noch rule *bei den Iroquois*; praktisch the effects einer deceased person appropriated by his nearest relations within the gens. In *case* of a *male* his *own brothers and sisters and maternal uncles* divided his effects amongst each other; in *the case of a female* her property inherited by her *children u. her sisters, to the exclusion of her brothers*. In beiden *Fällen blieb property in gens*. Deshalb nahm husband nichts von wife u. vice versa. *These mutual rights of inheritance strengthened the autonomy of the gens.*

5) *Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries.*

Individual depended for security upon his gens; bond of kin powerful element for mutual support; to wrong a person was to wrong his gens. *Herrera: „History of America“* erzählt von den *Mayas of Yukatan*: wo satisfaction to be made for damages, if he [who was] adjudged to pay was like to be reduced to poverty, the kindred *(gens)* contributed; *selbe* sagt v. *Florida Indians*: Stirbt ein Bruder od. Sohn, so verhungern eher the people of the house than seek anything to eat during 3 months, aber kindred u. relations send it all in. *Persons, removing von one village to another*, *could not transfer their possessory right to cultivated lands or to a section of a joint-tenement house to a stranger; must leave them to his gentile kindred. Herrera* refers to this usage under the *Indian tribes of Nicaragua*.

*Garcilasso de la Vega* ⦗ *Royal Commentaries Lond. ed. 1688, Rycaut’s Trans. p. 107*⦘ bemerkt über die tribes der *Peruvian Andes*, dass „when *the commonalty*, or ordinary sort, married, *the communities* ( = *gentes*) *of the people were* obliged to *build and provide them houses*.“

The *ancient practice of blood revenge … had its birthplace in the gens*. Tribunals for the trial of criminals and laws prescribing their punishment, came late into existence in gentile society. Unter den *Iroquois* and other *Indian tribes* generally, the *obligation to avenge the murder of a kinsman* universally recognized. Vorher *Beilegungsversuch zwischen gens of the slayer u. gens des slain*; a *council of the members of each gens held separetely*, propositions made on behalf of the murderer for a condonation of the act meist in Form of expression of regret u. presents of considerable value; zog das alles nicht, weil gentile kindred der slain person implacable, so ernannte die gens (des slain) unter ihren members *one or more avengers*, die den criminal to pursue, until discovered, and then to slay him wherever he might be found. If they did so, this no ground of complaint by any member of the gens of the victim.

6) *The right of bestowing names upon the members of the gens.*

Unter savage u. barbaric tribes there is *no name for the family*. The *personal names* von individuals derselben family indicate no family connection between them. ⦗*family name* ist *nicht älter* als die Civilization⦘ *Indian personal names*, however, usually *indicate the gens of the individual to persons of other gentes in the same tribe*. As a rule *each gens had names for persons that were its special property*, and, as such, could not be used by other gentes of the same tribe. *A gentile name conferred of itself gentile rights.*

After birth of the child his *mother* selected for him *a name, not in use, belonging to the gens*, with the concurrence of her nearest relatives. The child *not fully* christened until *its birth u. the name of its father, had been announced at the next ensuing council of the tribe*. Bei Tod einer Person, konnte deren *Name nicht wieder used werden in the life-time of his oldest surviving son, without the consent of the latter*. ⦗Dies wie alles particulare, wenn nicht direct Gegentheil gesagt, gilt von den *Iroquois*⦘

*Zwei classes of names in use*, one adapted to childhood, the other to adult life; one „being taken away“ (ihre expression) u. der andre „bestowed“. Im Alter v. 16 od. 18 der erste Name weggenommen, *usually durch a chief der gens* u. einer der 2ten Klasse statt dessen gegeben. At the next council of the tribe the *change of names* was publicly announced, after which the person, if a male, assumed the duties of manhood. In some Indian tribes the youth was required to go out upon the war-path *and earn his second name* by some act of personal bravery. After a severe illness nicht ungewöhnlich for a person, from superstitious considerations, to solicit and obtain a second change of name. When a person was elected a *Sachem* od. a *chief, his name was taken away, and a new one conferred at the time of his installation*.

Das Individual had no control over the question of a change; was prerogative der female relatives u. der chiefs; but an adult person might change his name provided he could induce a chief to announce it in council. *A person having the control of a particular name*, wie der eldest son of that of his deceased father, *might lend it to a friend in another gens*; but after the death of the person thus bearing it the *name reverted to the gens to which it belonged*. The names jetzt in use unter den Iroquois u. andern Indian tribes *meist ancient names handed down in the gentes from time immemorial*.

In familiar intercourse u. formal salutation the American Indians address each other by the *term of relationship* the person spoken to sustains to the speaker. When related they *salute by kin*; wenn nicht, they substitute *„my friend“*. Gälte für lümmelhaft *to address an Indian by his personal name*, *or to inquire his name directly from himself*. *Anglo-Saxon ancestors* der »English« hatten bis *Norman Conquest* nur *single personal names*, *no name to designate the family*. Zeigt an *späte Erscheinung der Monogamie*; u. *Existenz in früherer Periode* von *a Saxon gens*.

7) *The right of adopting strangers into the gens.*

Captives taken in war either put to death, or adopted into some gens; letztres mit *women u. children*, taken prisoners, usual. *Adoption* not only *conferred gentile rights*, sondern auch die *nationality of the tribe*.

The person adopting a captive placed him or her in the relation of a brother or a sister; if a mother adopted, in that of a son or a daughter; and ever afterwards treated the person in all respects as though born in that relation.

*Slavery*, which in the *Upper Status of Barbarism* became the fate of the captive, *was unknown among tribes in the Lower Status in the aboriginal period*. Captives when adopted were often assigned in the family the places of deceased persons slain in battle, in order to fill up the broken ranks of relatives. *Ausnahmsweise declining gens* so replenished, z. B. at certain time die *Hawk gens* der *Senecas* so much thinned, dass dem Erlöschen nah; to save the gens, *a number of persons from the Wolf gens* by mutual consent were transferred in a body by adoption to that of the Hawk. Das Adoptionsrecht left to the discretion of each gens. *Unter den Iroquois* die Adoptionsceremonie performed at a public council of the tribe, wodurch turned practically in a religious rite.

8) *Religious rites in the Gens?*

Kann kaum gesagt werden, dass *any Indian gens had special religious rites*; aber their *religious worship* [had] mehr od. minder *direct connection with the gentes*; religious ideas germinated u. forms of worship instituted in gens, expanded from the gens over the tribe, statt *special* to remain to the gens. So bei den *Iroquois* 6 annual religious festivals ⦗*Maple, Planting, Berry, Green-Corn, Harvest u. New Year’s Festivals*⦘ common to all the gentes united in a tribe, observed at stated seasons of the year.

*Jede gens* furnished a number of *„Keepers of the Faith“*, male and female, charged mit celebration jener festivals; conducted in selben die ceremonies zus. mit den Sachems u. Chiefs der Tribes who, *ex officio* „Keepers of the Faith“. With no official head, none of the marks of a priesthood, their functions equal. Die *„female keepers of the faith“* bes. charged mit preparation of the feast, provided at all councils at the close of each day for all persons in attendance; was *a dinner in common*. – Their worship was one of thanksgiving, with invocations des *Great Spirit* u. der *Lesser Spirits* to continue to them the blessings of life. (*Cf. Morgan’s: League of the Iroquois*, p. 182)

9) *A common burial place.*

Ancient – aber *nicht exclusive* – mode of burial: *by scaffolding the body until the flesh had wasted*, danach die *bones collected* u. preserved in *bark barrels in a house constructed for their reception*; die belonging zur selben gens usually placed in the same house. *Rev. Dr Cyrus Byington* found these practices unter den *Choctas, 1827*; so sagt *Adair* ⦗ *Hist. of the Americ. Indians*, p. 183⦘ von den *Cherokees*: „I saw three of them, in one of their towns pretty near each other … Each house contained the bones of one tribe separately, with the hieroglyphical figures of each family *(gens)* on each of *the oddshaped arks*.“ *Die Iroquois* in ancient times used scaffolds u. preserved the *bones of deceased relatives in bark barrels, often keeping them in the house they occupied*. They *also buried in the ground*; im letztern Fall die same gens not always buried *locally* together, unless *they had a common cemetery for the village*. *Rev. Ashur Wright*, a missionary among the *Senecas*, wrote to Morgan: „I find no trace of the influence of clanship in the burial places of the dead … buried promiscuously … they say *that formerly the members of the different clans more frequently resided together than they do at present time. As one family they were more under the influence of family feeling, and had less of* individual interest.“

*At the Tuscarora reservation* (near Lewiston), obgleich die Tuscaroras now »Christians«, hat *tribe one common cemetery*, aber die *individuals of the same gens* – of Beaver, Bear, Gray Wolf etc are *buried in a row by themselves*. Dort *husbands u. wives* separated u. buried in separate rows; *ebenso fathers u. their children*; aber *found in the same row mothers and their children u. brothers u. sisters*.

Unter den *Iroquois* u. andern Indian tribes in same status of advancement, bei dem funeral of a deseased gentilis, *all the members of the gens are mourners*; die *addresses at the funeral*, the *preparation of the grave*, u. the *burial of the body* were performed by members of other gentes.

Die *Village Indians v. Mexico u. Central America* practiced a *slow* *cremation* ⦗confined to chief and principal men⦘, ebenso scaffolding u. burying in the ground.

10) *A Council of the Gens.*

*The Council* – instrument of government u. supreme authority über *gens, tribe, confederacy*. Ordinary affairs adjusted durch die *chiefs*; *those of general interest* submitted to the determination of the council u. der council *sprang from the gentile organization – the Council of Chiefs*; its history, *gentil, tribal, u. confederate*, bis political *society* intervened, changing *Council* in *Senat*.

*Simplest u. lowest form of the Council – that of the Gens*; a democratic assembly, wo *every adult male u. female member* had a voice upon all questions brought before it; it *elected u. deposed* its *sachems u. chiefs*, ditto *„Keepers of the Faith“*, it *condoned* or *avenged* the murder of a gentilis, it *adopted* persons into the *gens*. It was the *germ of the higher council of the tribe, and of that still higher of the confederacy, each of which was composed exclusively of chiefs as representatives of the gentes*.

So dies bei *Iroquois* u. selbe Rechte der *gentes der Grecian u. Latin tribes* ⦗save Punkt 1, 2, 6, deren ancient existence doch presumirt werden muss⦘.

All the members of an Iroquois gens *personally free*, bound *to defend each other’s freedom*; *equal in privileges u. personal rights*; Sachem u. chiefs claiming no superiority; a *brotherhood bound together by the ties of kin*. *Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity*, though never formulated, were *cardinal principles der Gens* u. diese die *unit of a social u. governmental system*, the foundation, worauf *Indian society organized*. Erklärt *sense of independence* u. *personal dignity universally an attribute of Indian character*.

Zur Zeit der europäischen Entdeckung waren die *American Indian tribes* generally organized *into gentes, with descent in the female line*; in einigen *Tribes*, wie den *Dacotas, the gentes had fallen out*; in andern, wie unter *Ojibwas*, den *Omahas* u. *Mayas of Yucatan*, descent has changed from female to male line. *Throughout aboriginal America* die *gens* nahm ihren *Namen von some animal*, or *inanimate object, never from a person*; in this early condition of society, the *individuality of persons was lost in the gens*; die *gentes der Grecian u. Latin tribes* in der *relativ späten Periode* wo sie under *historical notice* kommen, *were* (bereits) *named after persons*. In einigen der tribes, wie bei *Moqui Village Indians of New Mexico*, the *members of the gens claimed their descent from the animal whose name they bore* – their remote ancestors having been transformed by the Great Spirit von animal into human form.

| *Personenzahl der gentes* varied: | *3000 Senecas* divided equally | *unter 8 gentes*, | would give an average v. | 375 persons *per gens*. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | *15,000 Ojibwas* divided | unter *23 gentes* |  | 650 persons per gens. |
|  | Cherokees |  | would average | more than 1000 to a gens. |

In der *present condition der Haupt Indian tribes* Personenzahl in jeder gens would range v. 100 to 1000.

*Except the Polynesian, every family of mankind seems to have come under the Gentile organization.*

### Pt. II. Ch. III. The Iroquois Phratry.

*The phratry (φρατρία)* a *brotherhood*, a natural growth from the organization into gentes; an *organic union* or *association of 2 or more gentes of the same tribe for certain common objects*. *These gentes were usually such as had been formed by the segmentation of an original gens.*

Unter den Grecian gentes *phratry nearly as constant as the gens*; *jeder der 4 tribes der Athenians organized in 3 phratries, each composed of 30 gentes*; also 4 tribes = 12 phratries = *360 gentes*, od. *4 tribes* = 4 × 3 *phratries* = *4 × 3 × 30 gentes*. Solch numerisch symmetrische Organisation beweist, dass später [mit] *Gesetz* herumgearbeitet an der *gegebnen Division* v. tribes in phratries u. phratries in gentes. *All the gentes of a tribe* – as a rule – *of common descent u. bearing a common tribal name*. The *phratric organization* had a *natural foundation* in the *immediate kinship of certain gentes as subdivisions of an original gens* u. auf dieser basis auch die *Grecian phratry originally formed*. Das spätere *legislative* numerical *adjustment* der *Athenian tribes* in phratries u. gentes erheischte nur *incorporation of alien gentes* u. *transfer by consent or constraint*.

Von den *functions der Grecian phratry* wenig bekannt: *observance of special religious rites; condonation or revenge of the murder of a phrator*; *purification of a murderer* er penalty of his crime escaped preparatory to his restoration to society. *(* *»ποία δὲ χέρνιψ φρατέρων προσδέξεται« (Aeschylus, Eumenides, v. 656)* *)* In Athen überlebte diese institution die Errichtung of *political society unter Cleisthenes*; its function: *to look after the registration of citizens*; wurde so *guardian of descents u. of the evidence of citizenship*. The *wife upon her marriage* was enrolled in the *phratry* of *her husband* u. die *children der marriage* were *enrolled in the gens and phratry of their father*. The phratry had *still* the duty to *prosecute the murderer of a phrator in the courts of justice*. (veränderte Form der Blutrache!) Wären alle details known, we would probably find the phratry connected mit *the common tables, the public games, the funerals of distinguished men, the earliest army organization*, *and the proceedings of councils*, as well as in *observance of religious rites and the guardianship of social privileges*.

*Analogue of Greek phratry* – the Roman *curia*. *»εἴη δ’ ἂν Ἑλλάδι γλώττῃ τὰ ὀνόματα ταῦτα μεθερμηνευόμενα φυλὴ μὲν καὶ τριττὺς ἡ τρίβους, φράτρα δὲ καὶ λόχος ἡ κουρία«* *(Dionys. l. II, c. VII; cf. l. II, c. 13)*

Jede curia = 10 gentes [und 10 curiae] in each of the 3 Roman tribes, making *30 curiae* u. *300 gentes*; the *curia* entered directly into the [functions of] government. The *assembly of the gentes* – *comitia curiata* – voted *by curiae*, each having *one collective vote*. This assembly the *sovereign power of the Roman people down to Servius Tullius*.

Of *organic growth* the *phratry* der *American aborigines*, wo sie existirte under large number of tribes; had *no governmental functions*, wie *gens, tribe, confederacy*; certain *social functions*, namentlich wichtig *when the tribe was large*. It *presents the phratry in its archaic form* and *in its archaic functions*.

1) The Eight gentes of the Seneca-Iroquois Tribes, reintegrated in 2 phratries.

| Ist) Phratry. | Gentes: | 1) Bear. | 2) Wolf. | 3) Beaver. | 4) Turtle. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IInd) Phratry. | Gentes. | 5) Deer. | 6) Snipe. | 7) Heron. | 8) Hawk. |

*De-ă-non-dă’-a-yoh* (Phratry) bedeutet *brotherhood*. The *gentes* in the *same phratry* are *brother gentes* to each other, and *cousin-gentes* to those of the other phratry; die *Senecas brauchen diese Ausdrücke* when speaking of gentes in relation to the phratries. *Originally marriage not* allowed unter den members der same phratry, aber die Members je einer phratry konnten heirathen into any gens of the other. Dies *Verbot* (die Heirath unter Gliedern derselben Phratry) zeigt, dass die *gentes of each phratry were subdivisions of an original gens*, u. das Verbot to marry into one’s own gens had followed to its subdivisions. *Diese Restriction* war seit lang verschwunden, ausser *mit Bezug auf marriage eines Individuums in seiner eignen gens*. *Tradition der Senecas, dass die **Bär** u. the **Deer** die original gentes*, von denen die andern subdivisions. Also: *natural foundation der phratry* – *the kinship of the gentes of which it was composed*. After *their subdivision* from increase of numbers there was *a natural tendency to their reunion in a higher organization for objects common to them all*. *Dieselben gentes* nicht für immer *constant in a phratry*: wenn das equilibrium in their respective numbers disturbed, *transfers of particular gentes from one phratry to the other occurred*.

Mit *increase of numbers in a gens*, followed *by local separation of its members, segmentation* occurred, and *the seceding portion adopted a new gentile name*. Aber *tradition of their former unity* remained u. *became the basis of their reorganization in a phratry*.

2) Cayuga-Iroquois. 8 gentes unequally divided between 2 phratries.

| Ist Phratry. | Gentes. | 1) Bear. | 2) Wolf. | 3) Turtle. | 4) Snipe. | 5) Eel. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IInd Phratry. | Gentes. | 6) Deer. | 7) Beaver. | 8) Hawk. |  |  |

Seven of these gentes *selbe* wie die der Senecas; the *Heron gens* verschwunden; *Eel* takes its place, but transferred to the other side. The *Snipe u. Beaver* *gentes* also have exchanged phratries. Die *Cayugas* nennen auch die *gentes der same phratry* »brother gentes«, die der *opposite phratry »cousin gentes«*.

3) Onondaga-Iroquois (8 gentes, unequally divided in phratries wie bei Cayugas).

| Ist Phratry. | Gentes: | 1) Wolf. | 2) Turtle. | 3) Snipe. | 4) Beaver. | 5) Ball. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IInd Phratry. | Gentes. | 6) Deer. | 7) Eel. | 8) Bear. |  |  |

*Hawk* (bei den *Cayugas*) ersetzt durch *Ball bei den Onondagas*. Composition der Phratries different von der der *Senecas*. 3 der gentes in der 1st phratry selbe, aber *Bear gens* now found mit *Deer*.

Die *Onondagas* have no *Hawk*, the *Senecas* no Eel gens, aber *fraternize* when they meet, as connected with each other.

Die *Mohawks u. Oneidas* haben nur 3 gentes: 1) *Bear*; 2) *Wolf*; 3) *Turtle*; *no phratries*. Zur *Zeit der Bildung der Confederation* seven of the 8 Seneca gentes existed in the several tribes, *as shown by the establishment of Sachemships in them*; but the *Mohawk* u. *Oneidas* had only the 3 named; they had then *lost an entire phratry, and one gens of that remaining – if* (!) *it is supposed* (!) that the *original tribes were once composed* *of the same gentes*.

When a *tribe* organized in gentes u. phratries *subdivides*, it might occur *on the line of* the *phratric organization*. Obgleich die members of a tribe *intermingled* throughout by *marriage, each gens in a phratry* is *composed of females with their children and descendants through females*, who formed the body of the phratry. Would incline to remain *locally* together, and *thus might become detached in a body*. Die *male members of the gens* married to women of other gentes and remaining with their wives would *not affect the gens* since *the children of the males do not belong to its connexion*. The gentes and phratries can be followed through every tribe.

The *Tuscarora-Iroquois* wurden detachirt vom *main stock* in unbekannter Periode der Vergangenheit, bewohnten die *Neuse-river region von North Carolina* zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung. Um *1712* verjagt aus dieser Area, removed to the country der Iroquois, were admitted in die Confederacy as 6th member.

Tuscarora-Iroquois. 2 Phratries v. 8 gentes.

| Ist Phratry. | Gentes. | 1) Bear. | 2) Beaver. | 3) Great Turtle. | 4) Eel |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| II Phratry. | Gentes. | 5) Gray Wolf. | 6) Yellow Wolf. | 7) Little Turtle. | 8)Snipe. |

Haben *6 gentes* in common with *Cayugas u. Onondagas, 5* mit *Senecas, 3* mit *Mohawks* u. *Oneidas*. The *Deer Gens*, die sie einst besassen, extinct in modern times. *Wolf gens* now divided in 2, *Gray* u. *Yellow*; ebenso *Turtle Gens* verdoppelt in *Great* u. *Little*. 3 of the gentes in the first phratry the same with 3 in the 1st phratry der *Senecas u. Cayugas*, nur die Turtle gens double. Da several 100 years zwischen separation der Tuscarora von u. return zu ihren congeners, Beweis of *permanence in the existence of a gens*. Wie bei den andern tribes, die *gentes in der same phratry* called *brother gentes*, die in the other *cousin gentes*.

*Differences in the composition* der Phratries zeigen ihre *modification* to meet *changes of condition*, (die die sie bildenden gentes befielen, wie Entvölkerung einiger, od. extinction etc) to preserve some degree of equilibrium in the number of phrators in each. *Phratric organization* unter Iroquois von unvordenklicher Zeit, älter als *the confederacy, established über 4 centuries ago*. Im Ganzen die difference in their composition as to gentes small, beweist permanence der Phratry sowohl als der gens. Die *Iroquois tribes* hatten *38 gentes* u. in 4 of the tribes a total of 8 phratries.

*Unter den Iroquois* die *Phratry* theils für *social* theils für *religious* objects.

1) *Games*, gewöhnlich bei *tribal u. confederate councils*. z. B. in *ballgame* der *Senecas* they *play by phratries*, eine gegen die andre, u. *bet against each other upon the result of the game*. Each phratry puts forwards its best players etc. Before das Spiel beginnt, *articles of personal property* are hazarded upon the results durch members der opposite phratries, are *deposited with keepers* to abide the event.

2) *At a council of the tribe* the sachems and chiefs in each phratry usually seated on *opposite* *sides* of *an imaginary Council-fire* u. the speakers addressed the 2 opposite bodies as the representatives of the phratries.

3) Wenn *murder committed* erst *council der gens* des slain, dann *council der gens* des Mörders; aber gens of the criminal calls oft on die other gentes of their phratry (when the *slayer u. the slayed belonged to opposite phratries*), to unite with them to obtain a condonation of the crime. Dann hielt diese Phratry ein *council* u. addressed itself hierauf an die *andre Phratry* to which it sent a delegation *with a belt of white wampum* asking for a council of the phratry u. an adjustment of the crime. They offered reparation to the family u. gens des murdered in expressions of regret u. *presents of value*. Negotiations between the 2 councils, bis affirmative or negative Entscheidung erreicht. Influence einer phratry grösser als die einer gens u. by calling into action die opposite phratry *condonation* wahrscheinlicher, namentlich bei extenuating circumstances. Darum *Grecian phratry* (vor Civilization) übernahm main management of cases of murder u. also of purification des murderer wenn he escaped punishment; hence, *nach Errichtung* der *polit. society*, nimmt phratry die *duty* of prosecuting the murderer in the courts of justice.

4) *At funerals of persons of recognized importance – conspicuous functions der phratries* (p. 95, 96). ⦗In the case of a *defunct* Sachem, the *opposite phratry*, not his own, sent immediately after the funeral, *the official wampum-belt* of the deceased ruler to the *central council fire at Onondaga*, as a notification of his demise. This was retained until the installation of his *successor*, upon whom it then bestowed as the insignia of his office.⦘

5) *Phratry directly* concerned in the *election of sachems and chiefs of the several gentes*. Hatte a gens *successor ernannt* für ihren deceased *Sachem* (od. elected a chief of the 2nd grade), so expected as a matter of course that the *gentes of the same phratry* would confirm the choice; aber manchmal opposition von Seiten der *opposite phratry*. Dadurch kam action of *council of each phratry in’s Spiel*.

6) Früher vor modern times had the *Senecas »Medicine lodges«*; letztere formed a prominent part of their religious system; to hold a *Medicine Lodge* was to observe their highest religious rites, and to practice their highest religious mysteries; they had 2 such organizations, *one in each phratry*; each was a brotherhood, into which new members were admitted by a formal initiation.

*Unlike the Grecian phratry* u. die *Roman curia* this *Indian phratry* had *no official head*; ebenso *no religious functionaries belonging to it as distinguished von gens u. tribe*.

M. betrachtet die 4 *„lineages“* of the *Tlascalans* who occupied the 4 quarters of the pueblo of Tlascala, als so many *phratries* (nicht als so *many tribes*, weil sie *occupied the same pueblo* and *spoke the same dialect*). Each *„lineage“* od. phratry had a *distinct military organization*, a *peculiar costume u. banner*, and its head war-chief *(Teuctli)* who was its general military commander. *They went forth to battle by phratries.* The *organization of a military force by phratries u. by tribes* nicht unbekannt den *homerischen Griechen*. *Nestor sagt zu Agamemnon:*

*»Κρῖν’ ἄνδρας κατὰ φῦλα*, *κατὰ φρήτρας*, *Ἀγάμεμνον*, *ὡς φρήτρη φρήτρηφιν ἀρήγῃ*, *φῦλα δὲ φύλοις.«* ( *Hom. Iliad.* II, 362–363.)

Die *Chocta gentes* united in *2 phratries*, the *first* called *„Divided People“*, containing 4 gentes; the *second „Beloved People“*, contains also 4 gentes. This *separation of the people into 2 divisions by gentes* created *two phratries*. – A *tribe* hat nie *weniger als 2 gentes*. The *gens increases in number of its members, divides* into 2; these again subdivide, and in time *reunite* in 2 or more phratries. These phratries form a *tribe*, and its members speak *the same dialect*. In course of time *this tribe falls into several by process of segmentation, which in turn reunite in a confederacy*. Such a confederacy is a *growth*, through the tribe and phratry, *from a pair of gentes*.

*Mohegan Tribe*, had *3 original gentes, Wolf, Turtle, Turkey*. Each of these subdivided, and *the subdivisions became independent gentes*, but *they retained the names of the original subdivisions of each gens* as *their respective phratric names*, alias *the subdivisions of each gens reorganized into a phratry*. Dies *beweist* conclusively the *natural process*, wodurch, in course of time, *a gens breaks up into several*, u. diese *remain united in a phratric organization* which is expressed by assuming a phratric name.

Mohegan tribe, originally consisting aus 3 gentes, Wolf, Turtle, Turkey.

| I) Wolf Phratry. | 4 gentes. | 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear. | 3) Dog. | 4) Opossum. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| II) Turtle " " | 4 gentes. | 5) Little Turtle. | 6) Mud Turtle. | 7) Great Turtle. | 8) Yellow Eel. |
| III) Turkey " " | 3 gentes. | 9) Turkey. | 10) Crane. | 11) Chicken. |  |

Selten unter den American Indian Tribes to find such *plain evidence of the segmentation of gentes*, followed by the *formation into phratries of their respective subdivisions*. Shows also that *the phratry founded upon the kinship of the gentes*. As a rule *the name of the original gens* out of which others had formed – unknown; but in each of these cases it remains as the name of the phratry. Der *Name nur einer der 12 Athenian phratries* known to us; die der Iroquois had no name but that of brotherhood.

### Pt. II Ch. IV The Iroquois Tribe.

*American aborigines* fallen in *zahllose tribes* – by the natural process of segmentation; *each tribe individualized by a name, a separate dialect, a supreme government, a territory, occupied and defended as its own*. The *dialects as numereous as* *the tribes*, for separation nicht complete, before *dialectical variation* had commenced. – Morgan glaubt, dass all the numerous *aboriginal* American tribes, (minus *Eskimos* who *no* aborigines) *formed out of one original people*.

Der term *Nation* angewandt auf viele Indian tribes, trotz geringer Volkszahl, v. wegen *exclusive possession of a dialect and of a territory*. Aber *Tribe* u. *Nations* nicht genaue Equivalents; *unter gentile institutions* entspringt *nation* nur, wann die *tribes*, united under the same government, have *coalesced into one people*, wie die 4 Athenian tribes in Attica, 3 Dorian tribes in Sparta, 3 Latin u. Sabine tribes at Rome. *Federation* requires *independent tribes in separate territorial areas*; *coalescence unites them* by a higher process *in the same area*, obgleich *tendency to local separation by gentes u. by tribes* would continue. The *confederacy* is the nearest analogue of the *nation*.

Sehr selten Fälle unter den American aborigines, wo *the tribe embraced peoples speaking different dialects*; wo der Fall, war’s Resultat der Union eines schwächeren mit einem stärkeren *tribe speaking a closely related dialect*, wie die *union der Missouris* – *after their overthrow* – mit den *Otoes*. Der great *body der aborigines* ward gefunden in *independent tribes*; nur wenige hatten es gebracht zu *confederacy of tribes speaking* dialects of the same stock language.

*Constant tendency to disintegration* existed in the elements of gentile organization, *aggravated durch tendency to divergence of speech*, inseparable from their social state and the *large area of their occupation*. A *verbal language*, obgleich merkwürdig *persistent in its vocables* u. noch mehr *in its grammatical forms*, – is *incapable of permanence*. Der *lokalen Separation* – in area – folgt im Lauf der Zeit *variation in speech*; dies leads to separation in interests u. to ultimate independence. Die *grosse Zahl von dialects u. stock languages* in *Nord- u. Südamerika* wahrscheinlich – save die Eskimos – abgeleitet von *one original language*, erheischten für *ihre Bildung the time measured by 3 ethnic* periods.

*New tribes u. new gentes* were constantly forming by natural growth; der *process sensibly accelerated durch the great expanse des American continent*. Die Methode war einfach. From *some overstocked geographical centre, possessing superior advantages in the means of subsistence*, a gradual outflow of people. Dies continued jährlich, so a *considerable population developed at a distance vom original seat des tribe*; im Lauf der Zeit die *emigrants* werden distinct in interests, strangers in feeling, *schliesslich divergent in speech*; *separation u. independence* follow, *though their territories were contiguous*. Dies repeated itself *von age zu age in newly acquired as well as in old areas* … *When increased numbers pressed upon the means of subsistence, the surplus removed to a new seat wo sie sich mit Leichtigkeit etablirten, weil the government was perfect in every gens u. in any number of gentes united in a band.* ⦗Dies was *»organized colonisation«*!⦘

Unter den *Village Indians* selber Process in etwas modificirter Form. When a *village* became overcrowded with members, a *colony* went up or down on the same stream u. *commenced a new village*; repeated at intervals, *several such villages* appear, each independent of the other and self-governing body; but *united in a league or confederacy* for mutual protection; *dialectical variation* finally springing up, completes their *growth into tribes*.

*Tribes* formed by the *subdivisions of an original tribe* possess a *number of gentes in common* u. speak *dialects of the same language*; have a number of [the same] gentes selbst nach *centuries of separation*. So die *Hurons*, jetzt *Wyandots*, haben *6 gentes desselben Namens mit 6 der gentes der Seneca-Iroquois*, nach at least 400 J. Trennung. Die *Potawattamies* haben *8 gentes selben Namens* mit *8 unter den Ojibwas*, während die former 6 u. die letzteren 14 different haben; showing dass *neue gentes formed in each tribe by segmentation* seit ihrer Trennung. Ein noch älterer Absetzer der *Ojibwas* – oder eines common parent tribe beider – die *Miamis*, haben nur 3 gentes in common mit den former, *Wolf, Loon* u. *Eagle*.

#### Illustrations from tribes in Lower State of Barbarism.

*8 Missouri tribes*, bei ihrer Entdeckung, occupy the *banks des Missouri* über 1000 miles, zus. mit den *banks of its tributaries, the Kansas u. the Platte*; ebenso the *smaller rivers of Iowa*; ebenso *West Bank of Mississippi down to the Arkansas*. Ihre *dialects* beweisen dass the people in *3 tribes* before the *last subdivisions*, nämlich:

1) *Punkas* u. *Omahas*; 2) *Iowas, Otoes u. Missouris*; 3) *Kaws, Osages, u. Quappas*; ihre *several dialects nearer to each other* than *to any other dialect der Dakotian stock language* to which they belong; also *linguistic necessity for their derivation von an original tribe*, wovon sie *subdivisions*; spreading *from a central point on the Missouri* along its banks, above u. below; *mit increase of distance between their settlements* – separation in interests, followed by *divergence of speech* u. finally by *independence*. Extending *along a river in a prairie country* such a people might separate *first in 3 tribes, dann in 8*, the *organization of each subdivision* remaining complete. *Division* meant a *separation into parts by natural expansion over a larger area*, followed *by a complete segmentation*. Der *uppermost* *tribe on the Missouri* – the *Punkas* at the *mouth of the Niobrara river*; the *lowermost* the *Quappas* at the *mouth of the Arkansas* on the *Mississippi*, near 1500 miles between them. The *intermediate region*, confined *to the narrow belt of forest upon the Missouri*, was held by *the* remaining *6 tribes*. They were strictly *River Tribes*.

*Tribes of Lake Superior* 1) *Ojibwas*; 2) *Otawas* (= O-tä’-was) u. 3) *Potawattamies* subdivisions of an original tribe; die *Ojibwas* der *original tribe*, the *stem*, blieben *am original seat at the great fisheries upon the outlet of the lake*; they are styled *„Elder Brother“* durch die beiden andern, die *Otawas „next elder brother“*, die *Potawattamies* – *„Younger Brother“*. Die letzteren separated *first*, die *Otawas* last, as shown *by the relative amount of dialectical variation*, that of the Potawattamies being greatest. Als entdeckt, *1614*, die *Ojibwas* seated *at the Rapids* on the *outlet of Lake Superior*, from which point they had spread *along the southern shore of the lake* to the site of *Ontonagon*, along its northeastern shore and down *the St. Mary River* well *toward Lake Huron*; ihre position famos for *a fish and game subsistence* ⦗they did *not cultivate maize and plants*⦘; zurückstehend keiner position in Northamerica ausser dem *Valley des Columbia*. ⦗Die *Ojibwas* manufactured *earthen pipes, water jars, u. vessels* in ancient times, as they now assert. *Indian pottery* zu verschiednen Zeiten *dug up* at the *Sault St. Mary*, the work of their forefathers.⦘ Mit such advantages certain to develop a *large Indian population* u. *send out successive bands of emigrants to become independent tribes*.

Die *Potawattamies* occupied a region on the *confines of Upper Michigan u. Wisconsin*, woraus *1641 the Dakotas* were in act of expelling them. Zugleich die *Otawas*, deren earlier residence supposed *on the Otawa river of Canada*, had drawn westward, damals seated upon the *Georgian Bay*, the *Manitouline islands* u. at *Mackinaw*, von welchen Punkten they were spreading südlich über Lower Michigan. – *Separation in place and distance* had long before their discovery resulted in the formation of dialects, u. in tribal independence. Die *3 tribes*, deren territories contiguous, had formed an alliance for mutual protection, *„the Otawa Confederation“*. (offensive and defensive league)

Vor diesen secessions *another affiliated tribe*, the *Miamis*, had broken off vom Ojibwa stock – the common parent tribe – u. migrated to *Central Illinois* u. *Western Indiana*. Folgend im track dieser migration were the *Illinois*, another u. later offshoot vom same stem, who *afterwards subdivided* in *Peorias, Kaskaskias, Weaws u. Piankeshaws*. Ihre *dialects* mit dem der *Miamis* nearest affinity mit dem *Ojibwa* u. next mit the *Cree*. ⦗The Potawattamie u. Cree have diverged about equally; wahrscheinlich *Ojibwas, Otawas u. Cree* one people in dialect *nach dem detachment der Potawattamies*⦘ *Outflow aller dieser tribes from central seat at the great fisheries of Lake Superior* – as a *natural centre of subsistence*. Die *Algonkins* v. *New England, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia u. Carolina* sehr wahrscheinlich derived von same stock.

*Each emigrating band* in the nature of *a military colony*, seeking to acquire u. hold a new area, *preserving* at first, and *as long as possible*, a *connection with the mother tribe*; durch *these successive movements* they sought to *expand their joint possessions* u. afterward, to *resist the intrusion* of *alien people within their limits* … the *Indian Tribes speeking dialects of the same stock language* have been *usually found* *in territorial continuity*, however extended their common area. Dies gilt, *in the main*, von *all tribes of mankind linguistically united* … *Spreading from one common centre* … they have *preserved their connection with the motherland* as a means of succor in times of danger, and as a place of refuge in calamity.

Damit *an area initial point of migration* werde *durch gradual production of a surplus population* required *special advantages in the means of subsistence*. Solche *natural centres wenig zahlreich in Nordamerika* – in fact, *nur 3*. An der *Spitze* the *Valley of the Columbia*; ausgezeichnetste region *on the face of the earth in the variety and amount of subsistence it afforded, prior to the cultivation of Maize and plants*. *Excellent game country* as mixture of *forest u. prairie*. In the *prairies* wuchs a *species of bread-root*, the *Kamash* u. zwar abundantly; in these respects it was, however, *not superior to other areas*; was es *auszeichnet* – *inexhaustible supply of salmon im Columbia u. andern Küstenflüssen*, they crowded these streams in millions, were taken in the season mit facility u. greatest abundance. *After being split open u. dried in the sun*, they were *packed u. removed to the villages*, formed their principal food during the *greater part of the year*. Ausserdem die *shellfisheries der Küste*, supplying *large amount of food during the winter months*. Ausserdem *Clima mild* u. *equable* throughout the year, about that of *Virginia* u. *Tennessee*; was the *paradise of tribes ohne knowledge der cereals*. Es kann sehr wahrscheinlich gemacht werden, dass das *Valley of Columbia* the *seedland of the Ganowánian family*, wovon successive streams of migrating bands, bis *both divisions des Continent occupied* u. dass *beide divisions*, bis zur Epoche der europ. Entdeckung replenished with inhabitants von dieser Quelle. Die *grosse Ausdehnung der* *Centralprairien*, spreading continuously more *than 1500 miles* v. Nord nach Süd u. *über 1000 miles von Ost nach West*, interposed a *barrier* to *free communication zwischen Pacific* u. *Atlantic sides des Continents in Nordamerika*. Wahrscheinlich daher, dass *an original family* commencing *its spread from the Valley of the Columbia*, u. migrating under the influence of physical causes, would *reach Patagonia eher als Florida*. Die *Entdeckung des Maize* würde den course of events nicht materially change, or suspend the action of previous causes. Nicht bekannt wo das *American Cereal indigenous*; aber *Central America*, wo *vegetation intensively active*, wo *Maize peculiarly fruitful*, wo die *oldest seats der Village Indians found* … probable *place of nativity of Maize*. Von Centralamerica die cultivation would have spread to *Mexico*, dann *Neu Mexico*, u. *valley des Mississippi*, von da *östlich to the shores des Atlantic*; the volume of cultivation diminishing from the starting point to the extremities. It would spread independently von den Village Indians, from the desire of more barbarous tribes to gain the new subsistence; aber *extended nie über Neu Mexico to the Valley of the Columbia*, obgleich cultivation practised durch die *Minnitarees u. Mandans des Upper Missouri*, die *Shyans* des *Red River* des North, by the *Hurons of Lake Simcoe in Canada*, the *Abenakies of the Kennebec*, wie generally by *all the tribes zwischen Mississippi u. Atlantic*. Migrating bands von dem Valley of Columbia would *press upon the village Indians of New Mexico u. Mexico*, tending to force displaced u. fragmentary tribes *towards and through the Isthmus* into *South America*, wohin diese would carry the first germs of progress developed by the Village Indians. Repeated at intervals of time it would tend to bestow *upon South America a class of inhabitants far superior to the wild bands formerly supplied*, and at the expense of the Northern section thus impoverished. *So South America would attain the advanced position* in development, even in an inferior country, which seems to have been the fact. The *Peruvian legend* of *Manco Capac* u. *Mama Oello*, children of the sun, *brother and sister, husband and wife* shows that a *band of village Indians* migrating from a distance, *though not necessarily from North America direct*, had gathered together and taught *the rude tribes* of *the Andes* the higher arts of life, *including the cultivation of Maize and plants*; legend dropped out the band, *retained only the leader and his wife*.

2 *tes)* *(nach Valley of Columbia) natural initial centre:* the *peninsula between lakes Superior, Huron u. Michigan*, the *seat of the Ojibwas* u. *nursery land of many Indian tribes*.

3t es) *natural initial centre:* the *lake region of Minnesota*, the *nursery ground der present Dakotian tribes*; Grund anzunehmen, dass *Minnesota was a part of the Algonkin area* vor Besetzung *durch die Dakotas*.

Sobald *cultivation of maize u. plants* erschien, it *tended to localize the people* u. *support them in smaller areas*, as well as *to increase their numbers*; übertrug aber nicht *control des Continents to the most advanced tribes der Village Indians, die fast nur von Cultivation subsisted*. *Horticulture* spread unter den principal tribes in the *Lower Status of barbarism*, improved greatly their condition, they *held*, mit den *non horticultural tribes, the great areas of North America* when discovered, u. v. ihren ranks the Continent replenished mit inhabitants.

*Incessant warfare der aborigines* mit einander; als Regel the *most persistent warfare unter tribes speaking different stocklanguages*, wie z. B. zwischen *Iroquois* u. *Algonkin tribes*, u. der ersteren ditto mit den *Dakota tribes*. Dagegen *Algonkin* u. *Dakota tribes* lived at peace mit each other, gezeigt durch *occupation of continuous areas*. Die *Iroquois* pursued a war of extermination gegen their *kindred tribes*, the *Eries*, *Neutral Nation*, the *Hurons* u. die *Susquehannocks*. Tribes speaking *dialects derselben stocklanguage* können sich verständigen, compose their differences, u. lernen, in virtue of their common descent, sich als natural allies zu betrachten.

*Bevölkerungszahl* in *a given area* limited *by amount* of the *subsistence it afforded*; when *fish u. game* the *main reliance for food, immense area* required to maintain a small tribe. Als *farinaceous food* hinzukam, *area* occupied by a tribe *still large in proportion to the number of the people*. *New York* – mit *47,000 □ miles* hatte nie mehr als *25,000 Indians*, inclus. mit den *Iroquois* die *Algonkins on the eastside des Hudson* u. upon the *Long Island* u. die *Eries u. Neutral Nation* in der *westlichen* Seite des Staats. A *personal government, gegründet upon gentes*, unfähig hinreichende *central power* zu entwickeln to control the increasing numbers des people, wenn sie nicht in reasonable distance von einander blieben.

*Unter den Village Indians* von *Neu Mexico, Mexico u. Centralamerica Wachsthum der Bevölkrungszahl upon a small area hielt nicht den Process* der *Disintegration* auf. Wo *verschiedne pueblos* seated nah bei einander am selben Strom, the people usually of *common descent* u. under a *tribal* or *confederate government*. ⦗Each *pueblo* gewöhnlich an *independent*, self-governing *community*⦘. About *7 stocklanguages*, allein gesprochen in *New Mexico*, jede mit several dialects. Zur Zeit v. *Coronado ’s expedition* – *1540–42* – the villages found *numerous* but *small*. Es waren ihrer 7 of *Cibola, Tucayan* u. *Quivira* u. *Hemez* u. 12 of *Tiguex*, u. andre groups indicating a linguistic connection of their members. Unbekannt ob each group confederated. Die *7 Moqui Pueblos* (die Tucayan villages of Coronado’s expedition) sollen jetzt confederate sein, waren es wahrscheinlich zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung.

Der *process of subdivision* operating unter den American aborigines für 1000de v. Jahren, hat in *North America allein an 40 stocklanguages* entwickelt, wovon jede gesprochen in Anzahl v. Dialects durch gleiche Zahl unabhängiger tribes.

Für an *American Indian tribe* nur a *few hundreds* u. höchstens a *few 1000 people* erheischt, um ihn in a respectable position in *Ganowánian family* zu stellen.

#### Functions u. attributes of the Indian tribes. (p. 112–121)

1) *Possession of a territory and a name.*

*the territory* – their *actual settlement* u. so much of the *surrounding region* als tribe *ranged over in hunting u. fishing* u. could defend gegen andre encroaching tribes; darüber hinaus a *wide margin of neutral grounds*, separating them vom nächsten Tribe, *speaking* a *different language*, and claimed by neither; less wide u. less clearly marked, when they spoke *dialects of the same language*.

Die *names*, die nach u. nach die tribes individualize, in vielen cases zufällig wie die *Senecas* nannten sich selbst *„Great Hill People“* etc. Nach *Beginn der europäischen Colonisation* im nördlichen Amerika erhielten die Indian tribes *Namen von andern tribes* who had bestowed names upon them different from their own. Hence a *number of tribes* known in history *under names not recognized* by themselves.

2) *The exclusive possession of a dialect.*

Tribe and dialect substantially *co-extensive*. Die 12 *Dakota bands* jetzt properly *tribes*, aber forced in vorzeitige Trennung durch advance of Americans upon their original area which forced them upon the plains. Früher war ihre connexion so intimate geblieben dass nur *one new dialect* was forming, the *Teeton*, on the Missouri; the *Isauntie* on the *Mississippi* being the original speech. Vor einigen Jahren die *Cherokees* zählten *26,000*, largest number of Indians ever found within *U. St., speaking the same dialect*; in the *mountain districts of Georgia* a slight divergence of speech had occured. Die *Ojibwas*, still in the main *non-horticultural*, about 15,000, speak the same dialect; die Dakota tribes, *25,000*, 2 closely related dialects. Dies Ausnahmen. In *U. St.* u. *British America* zählt a tribe on average *less than 2000*.

3) *The right of investing Sachems and Chiefs elected by the Gentes.*

4) *The right to depose Sachems and Chiefs.*

In the *Status of Savagery* and in the *Lower and also in the Middle Status of barbarism*, office was bestowed for life, or during good behavior.

Die *Sachems u. Chiefs*, v. den gentes gewählt, wurden nach Tribe Bildung, *members des Tribal Council*; hence das Recht v. *Investitur* letzterem vorbehalten; ebenso hatte er *auch* Absetzungsrecht; ging, nach Bildung v. Confederation auf *council of confederacy* über. The *offices of Sachem and Chief* universally *elective* north of Mexico; in other parts of the Continent, *evidence*, dass sie es allgemein so ursprünglich gewesen.

5) *The possession of a religious faith and worship.*

*»After the fashion of barbarians the American Indians were a religious people.«* (p. 115) *Medicine lodge – Dancing* form *of worship*.

6) *A supreme government through a council of chiefs.*

*Gens* represented by its chiefs; *tribe* represented by the *council of the chiefs of the gentes*. Called together under circumstances known to all, held in the midst of the people, open to their orators, it was certain to act under popular influence. *Council* (tribal) had to guard and protect the common interests of the tribe. Questions and exigencies arising through their incessant warfare with other tribes. As a general rule, the council open to any private individual desiring to address it on a public question. The *women allowed to express their wishes and opinions through an orator of their own election*. *Decision* given by the Council. *Unanimity was a fundamental law of its action among the Iroquois.*

*Military operations* usually left to the *action of the voluntary principle*. Theoretically *each tribe at war with every other tribe* with which it had not formed *a treaty of peace*. Any person *at liberty to organize a war-party* and conduct an expedition wohin er wollte. Er *announced his project by giving a war-dance and inviting volunteers*. If he succeeded in forming a party, which would consist of such persons as joined him in the dance, they *departed immediately*, while enthusiasm was at its height. *When a tribe was menaced with an attack*, war parties were formed to meet it in much the same manner. Where forces so raised were united in one body, *each under its own war-captain* and *their joint movements* determined *by a council of these captains*. This *relates to tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism*. The *Aztecs* u. *Tlascalans* went out *by phratries*, each *subdivision* under *its own captain*, u. *distinguished by costumes u. banners*.

*Confederation of Iroquois* u. *that of the Aztecs* were the most remarkable for *aggressive purposes*. Unter *Tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism*, incl. the *Iroquois*, the most destructive work performed by *inconsiderable war-parties*, beständig forming and making expeditions into distant regions. *Sanction of the Council* for diese expeditions weder sought, nor necessary.

*Council of the tribe* had power to *declare war* u. *make peace, send and receive embassies, make alliances*; *intercourse between independent tribes* conducted by *wise men* and *chiefs*, delegated dazu. When a tribe expected such a delegation, a *council was convened for its reception* and for the *transaction* of its business.

7) *A head-chief of the tribe in some instances.*

Nämlich a *Sachem*, superior in rank to his associates. Der *Council* nur selten in session u. urgencies might arise *demanding the provisional action of some one* authorized to represent the tribe, subject to the ratification of his acts by the council. This only basis for the *office ofhead-chief*. *Iroquois* had *none* u. their confederacy had *no executive officer*. Wo der *head-chief* in Indian tribes existed there, in *a form too feeble* to correspond *to the conception of an executive magistrate*. The *elective tenure* of *the office of chief*, and the *liability of the person to deposition*, settle the character of the office.

Der *Council of Indian chiefs* was a government of *one power*, prevailing generally among *the tribes in Lower Status of Barbarism*. Dies *erstes Stadium*.

*Zweites Stadium:* a government coordinated between a *council of chiefs* and a *general military commander*, one representing the *civil*, the other the *military functions*. Dies form began to manifest itself in the Lower Status of Barbarism *after formation of Confederacies*, became *definite* in *Middle Status*. Das *office of general* – chief military commander – *was the germ of that of a chief executive magistrate*, king, emperor, president; a *government of 2 powers*.

*Drittes Stadium:* government of a people or nation by a *council of chiefs*, an *assembly of the people*, and a *general military commander*. Appears under tribes who had attained to the *Upper Status of Barbarism, Homeric Greeks*, or *Italian tribes of the period of Romulus*. Large increase of people *united in a nation, their establishment in walled cities, creation of wealth* in *flocks, herds, lands*, brought in the *assembly of the people* as an instrument of government. *Council of chiefs* became a *preconsidering council*; *popular assembly adopted or rejected public measures*, its action final; lastly *a general*. Dies blieb bis Eintritt v. *political society*, wenn unter Athenians z. B., *council of chiefs* became *Senate*, the assembly of the people the *ecclesia* or popular assembly.

Im *Middle Status of Barbarism* the *gentes organized into tribes* remained as before, aber *confederacies* more frequent. In some areas, as in the *Valley of Mexico*, keineswegs – no evidence dafür – dass *political society* established. It is *impossible* to *found* a *political society or a state upon gentes*.

### Pt. II Ch. V The Iroquois Confederacy.

*Verbindung for mutual protection* erst einfach fact, hervorgerufen durch necessities (wie attack von aussen), dann *League*, dann *systematic confederacy*. Bei Entdeckung v. America existirten confederacies in verschiednen parts, u. a. namentlich: *Iroquois confederacy of 5 independent tribes, Creek Confederacy* of 6, *Otawa Confederacy* of 3, *Dakota League* of the *„Seven Council Fires“*, die *Moqui Confederacy* in *New Mexico of 7 Pueblos, the Aztec Confederacy of 3 tribes in the Valley of Mexico*. Am leichtesten Bildung v. confederacy (generally difficult wegen den *»unstable geographical relations«*) für die *Village Indians* im Middle Status of Barbarism wegen der *nearness ihrer pueblos* zu einander u. der *smallness ihrer areas*. Die berühmtesten confederacies in Northamerica die der *Aztecs* u. die der *Iroquois*; letztere genau bekannt; erstere *hatte wahrscheinlich denselben Charakter* of systematic confederacy, aber in den historischen (span.) Berichten erscheint sie mehr od. minder als blosse *league of 3 kindred tribes*, offensive and defensive.

*The Confederacy had the gentes* for *its basis and centre u. stocklanguage*, (wovon die *dialects still mutually intelligible*) *for its circumference*; none found beyond the bounds of the dialects of a common language; otherwise heterogeneous elements would have been forced into the organization. *Ausnahmsweis* wohl einmal die *remains of a tribe*, not cognate in speech, *admitted into an existing confederacy*, wie z. B. die *Natchez*, after their overthrow by the French, into the *Creek Confederacy*. There was *no possible way of becoming connected on equal terms with a confederacy* ausser durch *membership in a gens and tribe, and a common speech*.

*Monarchy incompatible mit gentilism.* The *Grecian tyrannies* were *despotisms founded upon usurpation* – the *germ* out of which the later kingdoms arose; the socalled *kingdoms of the homeric* *age* were *military democracies*, and nothing more.

Die *Iroquois* ursprünglich emigrants from beyond the Mississippi, wahrscheinlich *a branch des Dakota Stock*; erst nach *valley des St. Lawrence*, settled *near Montreal*. Durch die hostility der surrounding tribes gezwungen, sie nach der central region of New York. Mit canoes coasting das östliche Gestade des *See Ontario* (their numbers small), war ihre *erste Niederlassung an Mündung des Oswego river*, wo sie nach ihren traditions lang blieben; waren damals wenigstens *3 distinct tribes*, 1) *Mohawks*, 2) *Onondagas* u. 3) *Senecas*. Ein tribe settled nachher at the head of the *Canandaigua* lake, became the *Seneca*; andrer occupied the *Onondaga valley*, wurden die *Onondagas*; dritter passed östlich, settled erst at *Oneida*, bei site of Utica, removed then to *Mohawk Valley*, became the *Mohawks*. Die die blieben, wurden die 4) *Oneidas*. Ein Theil der Senecas oder der Onondagas settled entlang dem *eastern shore des Cayuga* lake, wurden die 5) *Cayugas*. Vor Besetzung durch die Iroquois, scheint *New York* Theil der Area der *Algonkin tribes* gewesen zu sein; nach ihren traditions entsetzten die Iroquois die alten Bewohner wie sie gradually ihre Niederlassungen ausdehnten, *östlich* vom *Hudson*, u. westlich vom *Genesee*.

⦗Also bis dato 5 tribes: 1) *Seneca*, 2) *Cayuga*, 3) *Onondaga*, 4) *Oneida*, 5) *Mohawk*⦘

Nach ihrer tradition lange Zeit nach ihrer Niederlassung in New York, während der sie common cause against their enemies machten, aber ehe sie confederacy bildeten. Residirten *in villages*, gewöhnlich umgeben *mit stockades*, lebten von *fish u. game*, u. den *products of a limited horticulture*. Ihre *Anzahl nie über 20,000*. *Precarious subsistence u. incessant warfare repressed numbers in all the aboriginal tribes*, inclus. *the Village Indians*. The Iroquois enshrouded *in great forests*, then overspreading New York. Zuerst sie entdeckt *1608*; um *1675* culminating point ihrer dominion über weite Area, covering grösseren Theil v. *New York, Pennsylvania* u. *Ohio* ⦗1651–5 expelled sie their *kindred tribes*, die *Eries, von Area zwischen Genesee river u. Lake Erie*, kurz nachher die *Neutral Nations* vom *Niagara river*, kamen so in Besitz des Rests von New York, mit Ausnahme des Lower Hudson u. Long Island⦘ u. *portions of Canada*, north of lake Ontario. Zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung waren sie die highest representatives of the Red Race im Norden v. Mexico in Intelligenz u. advancement, obgleich inferior to the Gulf tribes in arts of life. Noch 4000 Iroquois in New York, about 1000 in Canada u. ebensoviel im Westen.

*Confederation* formed about *1400–1450* (früher nach den generations of Sachems in the *history* of *David Cusick*, a Tuscarora.) The Iroquois lebten – die 5 tribes – in contiguous territories, sprachen einander verständliche dialects derselben Sprache u. hatten certain *common gentes* in the several tribes. Andre tribes in selben Umständen, aber die Iroquois, durch Bildung der confederacy, zeigten ihre superiority. Nach ihrer Sage die *confederacy formed durch a council of wise-men and chiefs* der 5 tribes, meeting für den purpose on the *north shore of the Onondaga lake, near the site of Syracuse*, perfected in ihrer session die organization u. set in immediate operation. Der origin des plan zugeschrieben einer traditionary person *Hä-yo-went’-hä*, der *Hiawatha* Longfellow’s. Die formation der Confederation still celebrated unter ihnen as a masterpiece of Indian wisdom; nach den *Iroquois selbst* bis jetzt fortexistirende Form ihrer Organization mit kaum irgend einem change.

Die *general features der Iroquois confederacy* sind:

1) *A union of 5 tribes, composed of common gentes*, under one government on the basis of equality; jeder tribe remaining independent in all matters pertaining to local self-government.

2) *A general Council of Sachems*, limited in number, equal in rank u. authority, invested with supreme powers in all matters relating to the Confederacy.

3) *50 Sachemships* were created and *named in perpetuity in certain gentes of the several tribes*; with *power in these gentes to fill vacancies* occurring, by election from among their respective members, u. mit *power to depose from office for cause*; the *right to invest these Sachems with office* reserved to the General Council.

4) The Sachems of the Confederacy also *Sachems in their respective tribes*, and *with the Chiefs of these tribes formed the Council of each*, which *tribal council* supreme over all matters pertaining to the tribe exclusively.

5) *Unanimity in the Council made essential to every public act.*

6) In the *General Council* the *Sachems voted* by *Tribes*, each tribe had so a *negative upon the others*. *(Poland!)*

7) *Council of each tribe had power to convene the general council*; the *latter had no power to convene itself*.

9) *The Confederacy had no chief Executive Magistrate, or official head.*

8) The *General Council was open to the orators of the people for the discussion of public questions*; but *the Council alone decided*.

10) *Experiencing the necessity for a General military commander* they *created the office in a dual form*, that one might neutralize the other. The *2 principal war-chiefs* created were made equal in powers.

When the *Tuscaroras* später admitted, they allowed by courtesy to sit as equals in the General Council, but the *original number of Sachems* wurde nicht increased.

The *sachemships were distributed unequally among the 5 tribes*, but without giving to either a preponderance of power, and unequally *among the gentes of the last three tribes*.

*Mohawks* had 9 Sachems, *Oneidas* 9, *Onondagas* 14, *Cayugas* 10, *Senecas* 8.

Die Sachems waren arrangirt in Klassen to facilitate the attainment of unanimity in the Council.

| 1) Mohawks. | 1ste class. | 3 (Turtle tribe) | 2t class | 3. (Wolf tribe) | 3t class. | 3. (Bear tribe) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2) Oneidas | " " | 3 (Wolf tribe) | " " | 3 (Turtle tribe) | " " | 3. (Bear tribe) |
| 3) Onondagas. | 1st class. | 3 (1ster Bear tribe. 3ter Bear tribe. Dieser u. 2ter were hereditary councillors of the To-do-dä’-ho, who held the most illustrious Sachemship. |  |  |  |  |
|  | 2te class. | 3. (1ster Snipe tribe) (2t Turtle tribe) |  |  |  |  |
|  | 3te class. | 1. (*Wolf tribe*) This sachem was hereditary keeper of the wampum. |  |  |  |  |
|  | 4te class. | 4. (1ster Deer tribe; 2t Deer tribe; 3t Turtle tribe. 4ter Bear tribe. |  |  |  |  |
|  | 5t class. | 3. (1ster Deer tribe. 2ter Turtle tribe. 3t Turtle tribe. |  |  |  |  |
| 4) Cayugas. | 1ste class. | 5. (1ster Deer tribe; 2t Heron tribe. 3t Bear tribe. 4t Bear tribe. 5t Turtle tribe. |  |  |  |  |
|  | 2t class. | 3. (2t Turtle tribe. 3t Heron tribe. |  |  |  |  |
|  | 3 class. | 2 (beide Snipe tribe.) |  |  |  |  |
| 5) Senecas. | 1st class. | 2. (Turtle tribe und Snipe tribe) |  |  |  |  |
|  | 2 class. | 2 (Turtle tribe u. Hawk tribe) |  |  |  |  |
|  | 3 class | (2) (Bear tribe u. Snipe tribe) |  |  |  |  |
|  | 4 class. | 2. (Snipe tribe u. Wolf tribe) |  |  |  |  |

In fact besteht der General Council nur aus 48. *Hä-yo-went’-hä* u. *Da-gä-no-we’-da* die 2 legendären Gründer consented to take the office unter den Mohawk Sachems u. to *leave their names in the list* unter Bedingung *that after their demise* the 2 should remain thereafter vacant. At all councils for the investiture of Sachems their names are still called. (Candidatures mortes)

Jeder Sachem hat einen *aid elected by the gens of his principal* from among its members, was installed mit same forms u. ceremonies; had to *stand behind his superior* on all occasions of ceremony, act as his messenger, in general subject to his directions; er hatte (der aid) *office of chief*, machte seine Wahl nach Tod des Sachem an dessen Stelle wahrscheinlich; diese aids hiessen: *„Braces in the Long House“.* (dies *»Long House«* symbolized the Confederacy)

The *names* bestowed upon the original Sachems wurden die Namen ihrer resp. successors in perpetuity. z. B. bei Tod v. *Gä-ne-o-di’-yo*, einem der 8 Seneca Sachems, sein successor gewählt durch die *Turtle gens*, worin *Sachemship erblich* u. when »raised up« by the General Council, his own name would be »taken off« u. jener ihm gegeben, was part der ceremony. Ihr jetziger Council noch fully organized, except dem Mohawk tribe, removing to Canada about 1775. Vacancies occurring their places are filled u. a general council is convened to install the new Sachems u. their aids.

For *tribal purposes* the 5 tribes independent of each other, their territories separated by fixed boundary lines, their tribal interests distinct. Als organization *der tribe* weder weakened noch impaired durch den Confederate compact; each in vigorous life.

Die Iroquois recommended to the forefathers der Americans (Engl.) *1755* a *union of the colonies similar to their own*. They saw in the common interests u. common speech der several colonies elements for a confederation.

The *Onondagas* were made *„Keepers of the Wampum“* u. *„Keepers of the Council Brand“*, the *Mohawks „Receivers of Tribute“ from subjugated tribes*, the *Senecas „Keepers of the Door“* des Long House. Diese u. ähnliche Provisions were made for the common advantage.

Die confederacy *rested upon the tribes* ostensibly, but *primarily upon common gentes*. All the members of *the same gens*, whether *Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas*, or *Senecas were brothers and sisters to each other* in virtue of their descent von the same ancestor. When they met, the first inquiry was the name of each other’s gens, and next the immediate pedigree of their respective sachems; dann able under their system of consanguinity to find ihre wechselseitige relationship.

3 gentes, – Wolf, Bear, Turtle – common to the 5 tribes; diese u. 3 others were common to 3 tribes; the Wolf gens, durch division of an original tribe into 5, nun in 5 divisions, wovon one in each tribe; selbes mit Bear u. Turtle gentes. *Deer, Snipe* u. *Hawk* gentes were common to *Senecas, Cayugas* u. *Onondagas*. ⦗Das *Erblichmachen* der Wahl der Sachems in certain gentes, does it not spring davon, dass *certain gentes* most common allen tribes?⦘ Der Mohawk des *Wolf gens* recognized an Oneida, Onandaga, Cayuga od. Seneca von selbem gens, though its members spoke different dialects of the same language, as a *brother* etc. In the estimation of an Iroquois every member of his gens in whatever tribe was as certainly a kinsman, as an own brother; dies *noch in its original force; explains the tenacity*, womit die old confederacy zusammenhielt. Had the 5 tribes fallen in collision, it would have turned Wolf against Wolf, Bear against Bear etc, brother against brother. Solang die confederacy dauerte, nie Anarchie nor rupture der Organization. Such persistency v. *bond of kin*.

The *„Long House“* (Ho-de’-no-sote) wurde Symbol der Confederacy; sie nannten sich selbst the „People of the Long House“ (Ho-de’-no-sau-nee), der einzige Name, den sie sich gaben.

*Coalescence* höhere Stufe des Processes. z. B. die 4 Athenian tribes *coalesced* in Attica into a nation by the *intermingling of the tribes in the same area* u. *the gradual disappearance der geographical lines between them*. Die tribal names u. organizations remained in full vitality, aber *without the basis* of *independent territory*. When political society was instituted on *the basis of the deme or township*, u. all the residents of the deme became *a body politic*, irrespective of their gens u. tribe, the *coalescence* became complete.

The Valley of the Onondaga as the seat of the central tribe, and the place where the *Council Brand* was supposed to be perpetually burning, the usual aber keineswegs exclusive place for holding the councils of the confederacy etc.

Ursprünglich the Hauptobject des Council to *raise up sachems* to fill vacancies (von death od. deposition), but transacted all other business mit Bezug auf common welfare. Nach u. nach the *Council* fell into 3 distinct *kinds* (nach den *functions*, die er abwechselnd übt); *Civil* (declares war, makes peace, sends u. receives embassies, enters [into] treaties mit foreign tribes, regulates the affairs of subjugated tribes etc); *Mourning Council* (raises up Sachems, invests them mit Office); *Religious Council* (held for the observance of a general religious festival). Nach u. nach Mourning Council for both purposes; jetzt der einzige, da die civil powers of the Confederacy terminated with the supremacy over them of the State.

An Overture made by a foreign tribe to either of the 5 tribes; der tribal council entschied ob die affair worth while to require *a council of the confederacy*; if so, a herald sent to the nearest tribes (v. den 5) in position, on *east* u. *west*, with a *belt of wampum*, containing a message to the effect that a *civil council* (Ho-de-os’-seh) [would meet] at *specified* place, time u. object; der tribe, der das message empfing, musste es senden dem next in position, bis die notification complete. Council assembled nie unless summoned under the prescribed forms. Wenn der Council was to meet for *peaceful purposes*, then *each sachem* was to bring with him a *bundle of fagots of white cedar*, typical of peace; if for *warlike* purposes, *fagots of red cedar*, emblematical of war.

Gesetzt die *Onondagas* seien der tribe, der den *General Council* had summoned. Am appointed day the *Sachems of the several tribes*, with their followers, who usually arrived a day or two before u. remained encamped at a distance, were received in a formal manner by the Onondaga sachems at the rising of the sun. They marched in separate processions *from their camps* to *the council grove*, each bearing his skin robe and bundle of fagots, wo die *Onondaga Sachems* awaited them with a concourse of people. *The Sachems then formed themselves in a circle*, an Onondaga Sachem, acting by appointment as master of the ceremonies, occupying the side towards the rising sun. At a signal they marched round the circle moving by the North. The rim of the circle toward *the North* called *„the cold side“*, that on the west *„the side toward the setting sun“*, that on *the south* „the side of the high sun“, that *on the east „the side of the rising sun“*. After marching 3 times around on the circle single file, the head and foot of the column being joined, the leader stopped on the rising sun side, and *deposed before him his bundle of fagots*. In this followed by the others. ⦗So formed an inner circle of faggots.⦘ After this each sachem *spread his skin robe* in the same order and sat down upon it, *crosslegged*, *behind his bundle of fagots*, with his assistant Sachem standing behind him. After a moment’s pause, the master of the ceremonies arose, drew from his pouch *2 pieces of dry wood and a piece of punk* (Zündschwamm) with which he *proceeded to strike fire by friction*. When fire obtained, he stepped within the circle u. set fire to his own bundle, and then to each of the others. When diese well ignited, and at a signal from the master of the ceremonies, the sachems arose and *marched 3 times around the Burning Circle*, going as before by the North. Each turned v. time to time as he walked so as to expose all sides of his person … then reseated themselves each upon his own robe. Master of the ceremonies again rising to his feet, filled and lighted the *pipe of peace* from his own fire; drew *3 whiffs, the first* toward the Zenith (bedeutet thanks to the Great Spirit for his preservation during the last year u. for being permitted to be present at this council); the *second toward the ground* (means thanks to *his Mother*, the *Earth*, for the various productions which had ministered to his sustenance); *third* toward the *Sun* (means thanks for his never-failing light, ever shining upon all.) Then he *passed the pipe* to the first upon his right toward the North, who repeated the same ceremonies u. so on around the burning circle. *The ceremony of smoking the calumet* bedeutete auch mutual pledging of their faith, friendship, honour. Mit dieser ceremony opening of the council completed u. dieser darauf declared *ready for business*.

Auf den *opposite sides des Councilfire*, sassen auf der einen: *Mohawk, Onondaga u. Seneca Sachems*; ihre *tribes*, wenn in council, were *brother tribes to each other* u. *father tribes to the two other*; they constituted, by extension of the principle, *a phratry of tribes u. sachems*.

On *the opposite side of the fire* the *Oneida* u. *Cayuga* u. später die *Tuscarora Sachems*; a second tribal phratry; *brother tribes* to each other, and *son tribes* of those opposite.

Die *Oneidas*, being a subdivision of the *Mohawks*, u. die *Cayugas* a *subdivision* of the *Onondagas or Senecas*, they were in reality *younger tribes*, hence their relations of *juniors u. seniors* u. *application of the phratric principle*.

When the tribes named in Council, the *Mohawks* named first, their *tribal epithet*: *„The Shield“*; next the *Onondagas*, under epithet of *„Name-Bearer“*, because they had been appointed *to select and name the 50 original sachems*. Nach der tradition die Onondagas deputed a wise-man to visit the territories of the tribes and select and name the new Sachems je nach circumstances: which explains the *unequal distribution of office* among the several gentes; *next in order* the *Senecas*, the *„Door Keeper“*; were made perpetual keepers of the Western door of the Long House; dann die *Oneidas*, the *„Great Tree“* u. die *Cayugas* the *„Great Pipe“*; the Tuscaroras named last ohne distinguishing epithet.

Der Foreign tribe represented at the Council durch a delegation of *wise-men u. chiefs* who bore their proposition and presented it in person. Nach ihrer introduction, macht einer der Sachem short address, thanking the Great Spirit etc, dann informing the delegates dass council prepared to hear them. One of the delegates submits the propostion in form, sustains it by arguments; nach conclusion der address, the delegation withdraws vom Council to wait at a distance. Nun debate unter den Sachems; when decision come to, a speaker appointed to communicate the *answer of the council* zu deren Empfang the delegation were recalled. Als speaker des Council meist chosen einer von *tribe*, der had convened the council; macht förmlichen speech reviewing the whole question, theilt dann *rejection* (mit reasons) mit od. *acceptance* (völlige od. in part). Im letzteren Fall *belts of wampum exchanged as evidence of the terms* of the agreement.

*„This belt preserves my words“*, common remark of an Iroquois chief in council, then *delivering the belt* as evidence of what he had said. *Several such belts* given in the course of a negotiation to the opposite party. In *the reply of the latter* a *belt would be returned for each proposition accepted*.

*Unanimity of the Sachems* required upon all public questions u. essential to the validity of every public act; it was a fundamental law der confederacy; *kannten nichts von majorities u. minorities in the action of councils*; zur Erreichung der votes die oben angeführten *classes*. *Kein Sachem allowed to express an opinion in council in the nature of a vote* bevor er nicht had *first agreed with the sachem or sachems seiner class* upon the opinion to be expressed, and had been appointed to act *as* a *speaker for the class*. So die 8 Seneca Sachems in 4 classes konnten nur 4 opinions haben, u. die 10 Cayuga Sachems, in selber number of classes, konnten auch nur 4 opinions haben. Dann *a cross-consultation* zwischen den 4 Sachems appointed to speak for the 4 classes; when they had agreed, *they designated one of their number to express their resulting opinion, which was the answer of their tribe*. Wenn so die Sachems jedes der tribes separately had become of one mind, their several opinions compared u. if they agreed the decision of the council was made. The *5 persons appointed to express the decision of the 5 tribes* erklärt vielleicht die functions u. appointment der *6 electors in der Aztec confederacy*. … War any sachem obdurate u. unreasonable, influences brought to bear upon him, which he could not well resist. Seltner Fall auch.

*Beim Beginn der Amerik. Revolution* konnten die Iroquois, wegen want of unanimity im confederate council, nicht übereinstimmen über *Kriegserklärung* gegen die neue American confederacy. Theil *der Oneida Sachems* refused. As *neutrality* was impossible with the *Mohawks* u. die *Senecas* were determined to fight, it was resolved *that each tribe* might engage in the war upon its own responsibility, or remain neutral. The *war against the Eries*, the *Neutral Nation* and *Susquehannocks*, u. die *several wars gegen French*, were resolved upon in General Council. »Our *colonial records* largely filled mit negociations mit der Iroquois Confederacy.«

*The induction of new Sachems* into office great interest to the people u. to the Sachems selbst. Für die ceremony of raising sachems the general council primarily instituted; in this capacity called *Mourning Council*, weil had to *lament* the deceased u. to *install* his successor. Bei death of a Sachem, der *tribe* der ihn had lost had power to summon a general council, name time u. place for meeting; a herald sent out *with* a *belt* of *wampum*, meist the *official belt of the deceased sachem* which conveyed the message: *„the name* (der des defunct) *calls for a council“*, announced also the day u. place of convention. *Mourning Council* mit den *festivities that followed* Hauptattraction für die Iroquois, flocking to attendance from the most distant localities with zeal u. enthusiasm. Bei der *lamentation* (womit proceedings opened), a *procession formed, and the lament was chanted in verse*, with *responses, by the united tribes*, as they marched vom place of reception to the place of council. Dies *1st day’s* proceeding; *2nd day: installation ceremony*, lasts meist bis 4th day.

u. a., for die *instruction des newly raised sachem*, the *ancient wampum belts*, into which, nach their expression, the structure and principles of the confederacy *„had been talked“*, were produced, u. *read, i.e. interpreted*. A *wise-man*, not necessarily one of the Sachems, *took these belts* one after the other u. walking to and fro between the 2 divisions of sachems, read from them the facts which they recorded.

Nach der *Indian conception, these belts can tell*, by means of an interpreter, *the exact rule, provision or transaction talked into them at the time, and of which they were the exclusive record*. A *strand* ⦗Germ. strahn, one of the *twists of which a rope is composed, Strähn = hank, skein* (Gebind)⦘ of *wampum* bestehend aus *strings von purple u. white shell beads*, or a *belt woven with figures formed by beads of different colour*, operated on the principle of associating a particular fact with a particular string; thus giving a serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory. These *strands* u. *belts* of *wampum* were *the only visible records der Iroquois*; aber they required *trained interpreters* who could draw from their strings and figures the records locked up in their remembrance. One of the *Onondaga Sachems* was made *„Keeper of the Wampum“*, und *2 aids were raised up with him* who were required to be versed in its interpretation as well as the sachem. The interpretation dieser several belts u. strings brought out, in the address of the wise-man, a connected account of the occurrences at the formation of the confederacy. *The tradition was repeated in full*, and fortified in its essential parts by reference to the records contained in diesen belts. Thus the council to raise up sachems *became a teaching council* which maintained in perpetual freshness in the minds of the Iroquois the structure and principles der confederacy, as well as *the history* of its formation. These proceedings occupied the council until noon each day; the afternoon being devoted to games u. amusements. At twilight each day *a dinner in common* served to the entire body in attendance; consisted of *soup* and *boiled meat* cooked near the *council-house*, and served directly from the kettle in *wooden bowls, trays and ladles*. *Grace was said* before the feast commenced; it was a prolonged exclamation by a single person on a high shrill note, falling down in cadences into stillness, followed by a *response in chorus by the people*. The evenings devoted to dance. After these ceremonies u. festivities – for several days – their sachems inducted into office.

Ob das right des Council to *»invest«* Sachems nur functional? Jedenfalls no case of rejection mentioned. Obgleich in form an oligarchy, this *ruling body of sachems* a *representative democracy* of the archaic type. Right of gentes to elect u. depose sachems u. chiefs, right of the people to be heard in council durch orators of their election, and the voluntary system in the military service. In dieser *lower* u. *middle ethnical period democratic principles were the vital* element of gentile society.

*Ho-yar-na-go’-war*, the Iroquois name for a *sachem*, means: *„a counselor of the people“*; analog bei den members of the Grecian council of chiefs; so

| bei Aeschylus, The Seven against Thebes, 1005: | »δοκοῦντα καὶ δόξαντ’ ἀπαγγέλλειν με χρὴ *δήμου προβούλοις* τῆσδε Καδμείας πόλεως«. |
|---|---|

*Chief of the second grade* heisst: *„Ha-sa-no-wä’-na“, „an elevated name“*, indicates appreciation der Barbaren of the ordinary motives for *personal ambition*. Fast ohne Ausnahme die *celebrated orators, wise-men* and *war-chiefs* der Iroquois – *chiefs of the 2nd grade*. *Office of chief* bestowed for merit, fell necessarily auf die ablest men (diese also excluded von *General Council*, aus dem so das *ambitious* element entfernt). *In American* (European) annals fast nur berührt solche chiefs; none of the long lines of sachems ausser *Logan* (einer der Cayuga sachems), *Handsome Lake* (Seneca sachem, *Gründer der New Religion* der Iroquois) u. at a recent day *Ely S. Parker* (Seneca sachem).

In der *confederacy of tribes* taucht zuerst auf the *office of General (Hos-gä-ä-geh’-da-go-wä = „Great War Soldier“)*. Enstanden nun cases, when *the several tribes in their confederate capacity would be engaged in war*. So want felt *for a general commander to direct the movements of the united bands*. Die *introduction of this office as a permanent feature* *verhängnisvoll event* in human history. *Beginn der differentiation of the military von der civil power*, which, *when completed*, changed essentially the external manifestation of the government. Aber *gentilism arrested usurpation*; government of one power became nun one of 2; the *functions of the gvt* became in [course of] time *co-ordinated* between the two. This *new office* – the *germ of a chief executive magistrate*; out of the general came the king etc. The *office sprang v. den military necessities of society*. –

*The Great War Soldier* der *Iroquois (lower status of barbarism)*, der *Teuctli* der *Aztecs (middle status of barbarism)*, der *βασιλεύς* der *Griechen u. rex der Römer (Upper Status of barbarism)* – three successive ethnic epochs – selbes office, das *eines Generals in a military democracy*. Bei *Iroquois*, *Aztecs*, *Romans* das office *elective u. confirmative* durch a constituency; wahrscheinlich auch bei den *Griechen während der traditionary period*; auf nichts gegründet die Behauptung, dass es *erblich* bei den homerischen *tribes* v. *father to son*; widerspricht dem groundwork of gentile institutions. Wenn in *zahlreichen Fällen* das office passed von father to son, dies might have suggested the *inference* – unbegründete – *of hereditary succession*, now adopted as historically true. – *Hereditary succession*, when first established, *came from force* (usurpation), nicht *by the free consent of the people*.

Nach Stiftung der Iroquois confederacy two *permanent war-chiefships* created u. named, *both assigned to the Seneca tribe*. One of them – *Ta-wan’-ne-ars*, signifying *needlebreaker* – made *hereditary* in the *Wolf gens* u. the other – *So-no’-so-wä* = *»great oyster shell«* – in the *Turtle gens*. Senecas erhielten beide offices, weil the *greater danger of attack at the west end of their territories*; were *elected* in same manner as the *sachems*, »raised up« by a general council, u. *both equal in rank u. power*. As general commanders they had *charge of the military affairs* of the confederacy u. the *command* of *its joint forces when united in general expedition*. *Governor Blacksnake*, recently deceased, held the office first named, showing that the succession has been regularly maintained. *2 gewählt to prevent the domination of a single man even in their military affairs*; so die *2 Roman consuls*, nach Abschaffung des rex.

The *Iroquois conquered other tribes* and held them in subjection, z. B. die *Delawares*, aber die *letztern blieben unter dem government of their own chiefs*, and added nothing to the strength of the confederacy. It was impossible in this state of society to *unite tribes under one government who spoke different languages*, and to hold conquered tribes under tribute *with any benefit but the tribute*.

*The Iroquois brain approached in volume the Aryan average*; eloquent in oratory, vindictive in war, indomitable in perseverance, they have gained a place in history. They had urged the *Eries* and the *Neutral Nation* to become members of their confederacy, and for their refusal expelled them from their borders. In the *competition between English u. French* for supremacy in North America – as the 2 were nearly equal in power and resources during the first century of colonization – the French Scheitern in no small degree to be ascribed to the Iroquois.

---

### Pt. II. Ch. VI Gentes in other tribes of the Ganowánian Family.

Bei Entdeckung von America in several regions, the *aborigines* found in 2 dissimilar conditions: 1) *The Village Indians*, abhängig fast ganz upon *horticulture* für Subsistence; such the tribes in this status in *New Mexico, Mexico, Central America* u. auf *dem Plateau der Andes*; 2) die *non-horticultural Indians*, depending *upon fish*, *bread-roots* u. *game*; such those of the *Valley of Columbia*, of the *Hudson Bay Territory, parts [of] Canada* etc. Zwischen diesen tribes, u. *connecting the extremes by insensible gradations*, 3) the *partially Village u. partially Horticultural Indians*: such: *Iroquois, the New England u. Virginia Indians*, the *Creeks, Choctas, Cherokees, Minnitarees, Dakotas, Shawnees*. Weapons, arts, usages, inventions, dances, house architecture, form of government, plan of life, all bear *impress of a common mind*; über wide range zeigen sie the successive stages of development of the same original conceptions.

Es ward nun (v. European u. American writers) erst *overrated the comparative advance der Village Indians*, *underrated* das der *non-horticultural*, hence betrachtet als *2 different races*. Aber Anzahl der *non-horticultural tribes* were in *Upper State of Savagery*; the *intermediate tribes* in the *Lower Status of barbarism*, die *village Indians* in *Middle Status of Barbarism*. Die evidence of their *unity of origin* now so accumulated that *settled*; *Eskimos* belong to a different family.

In den *»Systems of consanguinity etc«* Morgan presented selbiges von 70 American Indian tribes; selbes system nachgewiesen bei ihnen mit *evidence of its derivation von common source*; er nannte sie allesammt die *Ganowánian Family („Family of the Bow and Arrow“.)*

Giebt nun mit Bezug auf die Gentes der different tribes dieser Ganowánian Family: (nach *Nomenclatur in „Systems of Consanguinity“*)

I) Hodenosaunian Tribes.

| 1) *Iroquois.* | *Gentes:* | 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear. | 3) Beaver. | 4) Turtle. | 5) Deer. | 6) Snipe. | 7) Heron. | 8) Hawk. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2) *Wyandotes*; | remains of the ancient *Hurons*, separated v. Iroquois at least 400 years. |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | *Gentes.* | 1) Wolf, | 2) Bear, | 3) Beaver, | 4) Turtle, | 5) Deer, | 6) *Snake*, | 7) *Porcupine*, | 8) Hawk. |

Hawk now extinct; [the Wyandotes have] noch 5 gentes in common mit Iroquois, *names* nun changed.

*Descent in female* line; marriage in gens prohibited; *office of sachem* (civil chief) *hereditary in gens, elective* among its members; office of Sachem passes von brother to brother or v. uncle to nephew; that of *war-chief* bestowed for merit, haben *7 sachems* u. *7* *war-chiefs*; *property hereditary in gens, children inherit their mother’s* (nothing from father) *effects*, whether married or unmarried; each gens has power *to depose and elect* its chiefs.

The *Eries, Neutral Nation, Nottoways, Tutelos* u. *Susquehannocks*, now extinct, or absorbed in other tribes, belong to same lineage.

#### II) Dakotian Tribes.

Zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung in zahlreiche groups zerfallen, ebenso ihre Sprache in viele Dialekte; aber der Hauptsache nach bewohnten sie continuous areas; occupied the *head waters des Mississippi* u. *beide banks des Missouri* für mehr als 1000 miles in extent; Iroquois u. their cognate tribes wahrscheinlich offshoot of this stem.

1) *Dakotas or Sioux; jetzt about 12 independent tribes; gentile organization in decadence, aber their next congeners, the Missouri tribes* possess it; have *societies named after animals* analogous to gentes, aber letztre jetzt verschwunden. *Carver, Travels in North America Philad. ed. 1796*, p. 164, war bei ihnen *1767*; he visited the *Eastern Dakotas on the Mississippi*. Giebt *exacte tribe u. gentes Beschreibung derselben*, stimmt auch ganz mit sachem u. war-chief etc. *Morgan* besuchte *Eastern Dakotas 1861, Western 1862*, also beide fast *a century* nach Carver, fand nichts mehr v. gentes; a change of life den Dakotas aufgezwungen im Interval when *they were forced upon the plains* u. *fell into nomadic bands*.

2) Missouri tribes.

| a) Punkas. Gentes: | 1) Grizzly Bear; | 2) Many People. | 3) Elk. | 4) Skunk. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 5) *Buffalo.* | 6) *Snake*; | 7) *Medicine*; | 8) *Ice.* |

Hier *descent in male line*, the children belonging to the gens of the father; *office of Sachem hereditary in gens, choice elective*, but sons of a *deceased Sachem eligible*; *change vom archaic* [form] wahrscheinlich *recent*, da descent noch in female line bei 2 der 8 Missouri tribes, *Otoes* u. *Missouris* u. unter den *Mandans (Upper Missouri tribes)*. *Property hereditary in the gens*, worin *intermarriage prohibited*.

| b) Omahas. gentes | 1) Deer | 2) Black | 3) Bird | 4) [Turtle] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 5) Buffalo | 6) Bear | 7) Medicine | 8) [Kaw] |
|  | 9) Head | 10) Red. | 11) Thunder | 12) [Many Seasons] |
| Descent, inheritance, marriage same wie bei Punkas. |  |  |  |  |

| c) Iowas. gentes: | 1) Wolf | 2) Bear. | 3) Cow Buffalo | 4) Elk | *Beaver gens* existed unter Iowas u. Otoes, extinct. Anything else as before. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 5) Eagle. | 6) Pigeon. | 7) Snake. | 8) Owl |  |

| d) Otoes u. Missouris. Diese tribes have coalesced into one, mit following 8 gentes. |  |  |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear | 3) Cow Buffalo | 4) Elk | Descent in female line. Office of Sachem u. property hereditary in gens, wo intermarriage prohibited. |
|  | 5) Eagle. | 6) Pigeon | 7) Snake. | 8) Owl. |  |

| e) Kaws (Kaw’-zǎ) |  |  |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gentes | 1) Deer | 2) Bear | 3) Buffalo | 4) Eagle (white) | Descent, inheritance, marriage regulation wie bei Punkas. |
|  | 5) Eagle (black) | 6) Duck | 7) Elk | 8) Raccoon |  |
|  | 9) Prairie Wolf | 10) Turtle | 11) Earth | 12) Deer Tail |  |
|  | 13) Tent | 14) Thunder |  |  |  |

Die *wildest der American aborigines*; intelligent; 1869 the Kaws, much reduced, about *700*, giebt 50 per gens. *Osages u. Quappas* (tribes) hat Morgan nicht besucht. – *Home country* aller dieser tribes *along the Missouri and its tributaries*, von *Mündung des Big Sioux to the Mississippi* u. down the west bank des letzteren *bis Arkansas* river. Alle speak closely related dialects of the Dakotian stock language.

| 3) Winnebagoes. | Gentes. | 1) Wolf | 2) Bear | 3) Buffalo. | 4) Eagle |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  |  | 5) Elk. | 6) Deer. | 7) Snake | 8) Thunder. |

When first discovered tribe resided *near the lake* of same name in Wisconsin; offshoot of the Dakotian stem, folgten im track der Iroquois nach *valley of St. Lawrence*, progress arrested durch die *Algonkin tribes* zwischen *lake Huron u. Lake Superior*. Ihre nächste affiliation mit den Missouri tribes.

*Descent, inheritance, marriage*, wie bei Punkas. Sonderbar dass so many tribes of this stock *changed female [to] male line of descent*, da, wenn entdeckt, *property* bei ihnen nur slightly über germinating stage. Wahrscheinlich all dies recent under *American u. missionary influence*. Carver fand bei den *Winnebagoes* traces of descent in the female line in *1787*. (Sieh *»Travels«, l.c. p. 166*) Er sagt: „Some nations, when the dignity is hereditary, *limit the succession to the female line*. On the death of a chief *his sister’s son* succeeds [him] *in preference to his own son*; and if he happens to have no sister *the nearest female relation* assumes the dignity. *This accounts for a woman being at the head of the Winnebago family*, which, before I was acquainted with their laws, appeared strange to me.“ *1869* the Winnebagoes numbered 1400, per gens average of 150 persons.

4) Upper Missouri Tribes.

| 1) *Mandans.* | Gentes. | 1) Wolf | 2) Bear | 3) Prairie Chicken | 4) Good knife. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  |  | 5) Eagle. | 6) Flathead. | 7) High Village. |  |

In intelligence u. arts of life the Mandans ahead of all their kindred tribes, dafür probably indebted to the *Minnitarees*.

*Descent in female line*, office and property hereditary in the gens, worin intermarriage prohibited. Zeigt, dass *originally* female descent im Dakotian stock.

2) *Minnitarees. This tribe u. the Upsarokas or Crows subdivisions of an original people; doubtful members of this branch* of *the Ganowánian family*, from number of words common mit denen der Missouri u. Dakota tribes placed with them. They carried *horticulture*, the *timber-framed house* u. a *peculiar religious system* into this area which they taught the Mandans; können sein descendants der *Mound-Builders*.

Minnitarees u. Mandans live now in the same village; among the finest specimens of red man now in North America.

| 3) Upsarokas or Crows. | Gentes: | 1) Prairie Dog. | 2) Bad Leggins. | 3) Skunk. | 4) Treacherous Lodges. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  |  | 5) Lost Lodges. | 6) Bad Honors. | 7) Butchers. | 8) Moving Lodges. |
|  |  | 9) Bear’s Paw Mountain. | 10) Blackfoot Lodges. | 11) Fish Catchers. | 12) Antelope. |
|  |  | 13) Raven. |  |  |  |
|  |  | Descent, inheritance, marriage etc wie bei Minnitarees. |  |  |  |

If a person to whom any article of property had been presented *died with it in his possession*, and *the donor was dead*, it reverted to the gens of the latter. Property made or acquired by a wife descended after her death to her children, that of a husband to his gentile kindred. If a person made a *present to a friend* and died *the latter must perform some recognized act of mourning*, such *as cutting off the joint of a finger at the funeral* or *surrender the property to the gens of the donor*. This act of mourning very common unter den Crows, auch *as a religious offering* when they hold a „*Medicine lodge*,“ a great religious ceremonial.

The *Crows* haben einen Ehegebrauch, den Morgan bei mindestens 40 andern Indian tribes gefunden: *when a man marries the eldest daughter in a family he is entitled to all her sisters when they attain maturity. (Survival of custom of punalua)*

*Polygamy* allowed *generally by usage unter allen American aborigines*, never prevalent in irgend bedeutendem Mass wegen *inability of persons to support more than one family*.

#### III) Gulf Tribes.

1) Muscokees or Creeks. The Creek Confederacy consisted of 6 tribes, viz:

| *Creeks;* *Hitchetes;* *Yoochees;* *Alabamas;* *Coosatees* u. *Natches*. Mit Ausnahme der letzteren, admitted in ihre confederacy after their overthrow durch French, *spoke all dialects der same language*. |
|---|

*Descent unter den Creeks* in female line, sachemship u. property of deceased persons hereditary in gens, worin intermarriage prohibited; die *andren tribes* hatten auch gentile organization; jetzt die *Creeks* partially civilized, political system, in a few years traces of their gentile organization will have desappeared.

*1869 Creeks* numbered about *15,000*, average von 550 persons to gens.

| Gentes der Creeks. (22) | 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear. | 3) Skunk. |
|---|---|---|---|
|  | 4) Alligator. | 5) Deer. | 6) Bird. |
|  | 7) Tiger. | 8) Wind. | 9) Toad. |
|  | 10) Mole | 11) Fox | 12) Raccoon |
|  | 13) Fish | 14) Corn | 15) Potatoe |
|  | 16) Hickory nut. | 17) Salt. | 18) Wild Cat. |
|  | 19), 20) 21) 22) signification lost. |  |  |

2) Choctas. Bei ihnen each phratry named; 2 phratries mit je 4 gentes, wie bei Iroquois.

| Ist Phratry | Divided People | gentes: | 1) Reed. | 2) Law Okla. | 3) Lulak. | 4) Linoklusha. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IInd " " | Beloved People. |  | 1) Beloved people. | 2) Small people. | 3) Large People. | 4) Cray Fish. |

Gentes of same phratry could not intermarry, but jede mit gentes der other; zeigt, dass wie bei Iroquois, the *Choctas* commenced mit 2 gentes, jede davon nachher *subdivided* into 4. *Descent in female line*, Property and Sachemship hereditary in gens.

*1869* – some *12,000*, gives average per gens = 1500. *1820* residirten sie noch in their *ancient territory, east of Mississippi*, immigrated dann in *Indian territory*. – Nach Chocta usages *property* after the death of a man distributed unter his *brothers and sisters* and *the children of his sisters*, nicht under his children; *could give his property to his children in his lifetime*, then they could hold it against his gens. *Viele Indian tribes haben jezt considerable property in domestic animals, houses* u. *lands, owned by individuals*; unter ihnen common *practice to give it to their children during their life-time*. *Im Mass wie property wuchs, disinheritance of children began to arouse opposition to gentile inheritance* u. in *some of the tribes*, u. a. bei den *Choctas old usage abolished a few years since, right of inheritance exclusively vested in the children of defunct owner*. Dies came, however, durch *substitution of a political system* *in the place of gentile system, an elective council* u. *magistracy substituted to the old gvt by chiefs*. Under previous usages wife inherited nothing from her husband and vice versa, nor he from her; but the wife’s effects divided *among her children* u. in default of them *her sisters*.

3) Chickasas. 2 phratries, Iste 4 gentes, IId 8.

| Ist Panther Phratry | *Gentes.* | 1) Wild Cat. | 2) Bird. | 3) Fish. | 4) Deer. |  |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IInd Spanish Phratry |  | 1) Raccoon. | 2) Spanish. | 3) Royal. | 4) Hush-ko-ni | 5) Squirrel. | 6) Alligator. | 7) Wolf. | 8) Blackbird. |

Descent in female line, intermarriage in gens prohibited, sachemship and property hereditary in gens.

*1869* they numbered *5000*, average per gens about 400.

4) Cherokees, ursprünglich 10 gentes, wovon Acorn u. Bird now extinct.

| Gentes: | 1) Wolf | 2) Red Paint | 3) Long Prairie | 4) Deaf (a Bird) | Descent in female line; intermarriage in gens forbidden. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 5) Holly. | 6) Deer. | 7) Blue | 8) Long Hair |  |

*1869:* 14,000, average per gens =1750. Jezt *Cherokees u. Ojibwas* exceed all the remaining Indians in U. St. in Anzahl of persons *speaking the same dialect*. Nicht wahrscheinlich, dass jemals in *any part of North America* 100,000 spoke same dialect; dies nur bei *Aztecs, Tezcucans* u. *Tlascalans* (tribes) u. selbst dies schwer zu beweisen upon Spanish evidence. The *unusual numbers of Creeks u. Cherokees due to possession of domestic animals* u. *well-developed field agriculture*; now *partially civilized*, having substituted an *elective constitutional gvt* to the *ancient gentes*, unter dessen influence diese in raschem Verfall.

5) *Seminoles:* of Creek descent; said to be organized into gentes.

#### IV. Pawnee tribes.

Die *Pawnees* sollen nach Aussage des missionary *Rev. Samuel Allis* in *6 gentes* organisirt sein: *Bear, Beaver, Eagle, Buffalo, Deer, Owl*.

If so, auch die *Arickarees* (deren village near dem der *Minnitarees* u. die die *next congeners der Pawnees*), die *Huecos* u. 2 od. 3 andre small tribes residing on the Canadian river: haben *alle stets west von Missouri* gelebt u. sprechen an *independent stocklanguage*.

#### V. Algonkin Tribes.

Bei Entdeckung dieses *great stock der American aborigines* nahmen sie ein *Area v. Rocky Mountains bis Hudson’s Bay südlich vom Siskatchewun*, u. dann *östlich zum Atlantic*, einschliesslich *beider Ufer des Lake Superior* except at its head u. *beide Küsten des St. Lawrence*, südlich *von* *Lake Champlain*. *Südlich* extended their area *entlang* der *atlantischen Küste* bis *Nord Carolina* u. *down the East Bank des Mississippi in Wisconsin, Illinois bis Kentucky*. Innerhalb *der östlichen Section* dieser immense region waren die Iroquois u. their affiliated tribes an *intrusive people*, einzige Conkurrenten der Algonkins innerhalb der boundaries dieser Section.

a) *Gitchigamian Tribes* (From the *Ojibwa, gĭ-tchi’ (great)* u. *gä’-me (lake)*, the aboriginal name of *Lake Superior* u. *other great lakes)*.

1) *Ojibwas.* Sprechen selben Dialekt, organized in gentes, wovon Morgan 23 gefischt. In ihrem dialect the symbol or device of *gens* heisst *totem* (ebenso oft pronounced *dodaim*); z. B. a Wolf das totem der Wolf Gens. Hence hat *Schoolcraft* *(„History of Indian Tribes“)* die gentile organization „totemic organization“ getauft.

| *23 gentes* (bekannt) | 1) Wolf, | 2) Bear, | 3) Beaver | 4) *Turtle* (mud) | 5) *Turtle* (Snapping) | 6) Turtle (little) |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  | 7) Reindeer | 8) Snipe. | 9) Crane | 10) Pigeon Hawk | 11) Bald Eagle. | 12) Loon | 13) Duck. | 14) Duck. | 15) Snake |
|  | 16) Muskrat. | 17) Marten. | 18) Heron | 19) Bull Head. | 20) Carp | 21) Cat Fish | 22) Sturgeon u. | 23) Pike. |  |

Descent in male line, children belonging to their father’s gens. *Ursprünglich female.* Denn 1) die *Delawares*, anerkannt durch alle Algonkin tribes als einer der ältesten, von allen *„Grandfathers“* genannt, *haben noch descent in female line*, wie ditto etsliche andre Algonkin tribes; 2) *Evidence*, dass noch 1840 descent in the female line with respect to the *Sachem*. 3) *American u. missionary influence*; den Missionaries schien Erbfolge die den Sohn enterbte, ungerecht. – Wo wir das Wort »hereditary« anwenden, z. B. für nephew (seiner Schwester Sohn) eines Sachem, folgt nicht, dass letzterer *»hereditary right«* hatte im modernen Sinn, sondern dass er *in line of succession* (in der gens) u. his *election* substantially secured.

Property u. office hereditary *in gens* (worin intermarriage verboten); jetzt bekommen Kinder das meiste to the exclusion ihrer gentile kindred. Property u. effects der mother pass to the children, in their default to her sisters, own u. collateral. Ein Sohn kann jetzt seinem Vater folgen in office; wo *several sons choice determined by election*; the *gentiles* können nicht nur *elect*, sondern auch depose.

Jetzt *Ojibwas* some 16,000; gibt *average für gens* about 700.

2) *Potawattamies.* 15 Gentes. Alles andre wie bei Ojibwas. Die gentes sind:

| 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear | 3) Beaver | 4) Elk. | 5) Loon | 6) Eagle | 7) Sturgeon. | 8) Carp. | 9) Bald Eagle. | Loon = Tauchente. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10) Thunder. | 11) Rabbit. | 12) Crow | 13) Fox. | 14) Turkey. | 15) Black Hawk. |  |  |  |  |

3) *Ojibwas, Otawas, u. Potawattamies* subdivisions of an original tribe; when first known – *confederated*.

4) *Crees*; when discovered held *northwest shore of Lake Superior*, spread v. da zu *Hudson’s Bay* u. dann westlich to *the Red River of the North*; occupy später *the region of the Siskatchewun*, ihre *gentile organization lost*; nearest related to the *Ojibwas, gleichen ihnen closely in manners, customs, personal appearance*.

b) *Mississippi Tribes. Western Algonkins*, occupied *eastern banks of Mississippi* in *Wisconsin u. Illinois* u. *südlich bis Kentucky*.

| 1) Miamis. | 10 gentes. | 1) Wolf. | 2) Loon. | 3) Eagle. | 4) Buzzard. | 5) Panther. | 6) Turkey. | 7) Raccoon | 8) Snow |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|  |  | 9) Sun. | 10) Water |  |  |  |  |  |  |

Ihre immediate congeners – *Weas, Piankeshaws, Peorias, Kaskaskias* early known unter collective name of *Illinois*, jetzt wenige, haben ihre alte Lebensart verlassen für settled agricultural life.

Die *Miamis* declining in numbers, changed condition, *gentile organization* quickly disappearing. *When decline* commenced, *descent in male line*, sonst wie vorher.

2) *Shawnees* (highly advanced); haben noch *ihre gentes*, obgleich sie substituted der gentile – *civil organization*. Ihre gentes erhalten sie für genealogical u. social purposes, sind: ⦗*Shawnees* formerly worshipped *a female deity* – *Go-gome-tha-mä’* (*our* Grandmother.)⦘

| 1) Wolf | 2) Loon | 3) Bear | 4) Buzzard | 5) Panther | 6) Owl, | 7) Turkey, | 8) Deer | 9) Raccoon. | 10) Turtle. | 11) Snake. | 12) Horse | 13) Rabbit. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

Descent etc wie bei Miamis. *1869* ihrer nur 700, about 50 per gens; früher *3–4000*, was *above the average* of American Indian tribes.

*Shawnees* hatten a custom – wie auch die *Miamis*, ditto *Sauks u. Foxes* – of *naming children in gens v. Vater od. Mutter od. any other gens* under certain restrictions. Unter den *Iroquois*, sieh oben, hatte *jede gens its own special names für persons which no other gens had a right to use*; in *every tribe* daher *the name* (special, personal) *indicated the gens*. So unter den *Sauks u. Foxes* „Long Horn“ is a name belonging to the *Deer Gens*; *Black Wolf* to the Wolf gens; in the *Eagle gens* the following are *special names*: *Ká-po-nä* („Eagle drawing his nest“); *Ja-ka-kwä-pe* („Eagle sitting with his head up“); *Pe-ǎ-tä-na-kä-hok* („Eagle flying over a limb“).

Unter den *Shawnees* these names carried mit sich the rights of the gens to which they belonged, so that *the name determined the gens of the person*. Der *Sachem* musste in allen Fällen zu *seiner gens* gehören; wahrscheinlich der *change von female to male line* commenced thus: in erster Instanz to *enable a son* (der zur gens der Mutter gehörte) *to succeed to his father*, u. zweitens, *to enable children to inherit property from their father*. Empfing ein *Sohn den Namen seines Vaters*, so konnte er ihm in *office nachfolgen*, subject to election. Aber der father had no control over the question; it was left by the gens to certain persons, mostly *matrons* to be consulted when children were to be named, with *power to determine the name to be given*. Durch dies arrangement between the Shawnee gentes these persons had this power, *could so carry the person into the gens to which the name belonged*. ⦗Eingeborne casuistry of man to *change things by changing names!* u. Schlupfwinkel zu finden, um innerhalb der Tradition die Tradition zu durchbrechen, wo *actual interest* powerful motive dazu gab!⦘ *Traces der archaic rule of descent existiren unter den Shawnees.*

3) *Sauks u. Foxes: diese tribes consolidated into one; alles andre wie Miamis; 1869 nur 700, about 50 per gens. Noch 14 gentes.*

| 1) Wolf | 2) Bear | 3) Deer. | 4) Elk | 5) Hawk. | 6) Eagle. | 7) Fish. | 8) Buffalo. | 9) Thunder. | 10) Bone. | 11) Fox. | 12) Sea | 13) Sturgeon. | 14) Big Tree |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

*4) Menominees u. Kikapoos*; diese tribes independent of each other, *organized in gentes*; property hereditary in the gens, but restricted to the *agnatic kin* in the female line.

c) *Rocky Mountain tribes.* 1) *Blood Blackfeet* u. 2) *Piegan Blackfeet*. Jeder dieser 2 tribes in gentes getheilt, erster in 5, 2ter in 8. Namentlich unter den letzteren *Namen (von gens)*, die mehr nach *Bands* als gentes riechen, wie *Web Fat, Inside Fat, Conjurers, Never Laugh, Starving, Half Dead Meat*; aber *nicknames for gentes* superseded in some cases the original names. *Descent in male line, intermarriage in gens prohibited.*

d) Atlantic Tribes.

1) *Delawares*, one of the oldest of the Algonkin Tribes; when discovered, their home country **region around and North of Delaware Bay**; haben *3 Gentes*: 1) *Wolf*; 2) *Turtle.* 3) *Turkey*, aber jede dieser gentes a *phratry*, da *Wolf* getheilt in 12 *subgentes*, each having some of the attributes of a gens; *Turtle* in 10 subgentes (2 fernere extinct *), Turkey* in 12 subgentes. The *names* der *subgentes are personal*, u. *meist*, wenn nicht alle, *female*; sind betrachtet by the Delawares selbst (jezt at the *Delaware Reservation in Kansas*) betrachtet als their *several eponymous ancestors*. Dies zeigt zweierlei: 1) wie die *ursprünglichen Thiernamen der gentes* Platzmachen können *Personennamen*; ⦗die Namen der ursprünglichen *Gentes* bleiben hier *Wolf, Turtle, Turkey*; aber die Segmentation der *gens* in subgentes nach den *specific* (personal) *Namen der Stamm*mütter der Theile (Unterabtheilungen der Gensfamilien); so werden die ursprünglichen Thiernamen der gentes *Namen von Phratrien* u. die der *subgentes von Personen* (Mütter), ohne dass dieser change (wie bei male descent der Antiken) anything mit heroworship (als Urahnen) zu thun hätte⦘ *Zweitens:* zeigt sich hier *natural growth* von *Phratry durch segmentation einer gens in several subgentes*.

*Descent bei den Delawares in female line* u. alles andre archaisch. (So die 3 *original gentes* could not intermarry innerhalb selber gens; in *recent years* the *prohibition limited to the subgentes*; so in *Wolf tribe* z. B. die *of same name* cannot intermarry, wohl aber die of *different names*.) Auch die practice *of naming children* into the gens *of their father* aufgekommen bei den Delawares, has *introduced the same confusion of descents* wie unter *Shawnees* u. *Miamis*. ⦗ Dies scheint der natürliche Uebergang von female to male line: der *confusion* konnte nur durch den change Ende gemacht werden.⦘ *American civilization u. intercourse gave shock* to *the institutions der Indians*, ihr *ethnic life so gradually breaking down*.

Weil descent in *female line*, bei den Delawares wie Iroquois, office of Sachem v. Bruder to Bruder od. von (mütterlichem) Onkel zu Nephew (Schwesterssohn) .

2) *Munsees*; offshoot der Delawares, haben dieselben gentes: Wolf, Turtle, Turkey; *female descent* etc.

3) *Mohegans; form part of the New England Indians, south of river Kennebeck, die all closely related in language*, could understand each other’s dialects. *Mohegans* haben, wie Delawares u. Munsees – the *Wolf, Turtle* u. *Turkey, each of which composed of a number of gentes*, also *break up v. original gens into several which remain united in a* phratry. Die *phratries bei den Mohegans* cover the gentes of each u. die phratries must be stated, to explain the classification of the gentes. *Descent in female line.* ⦗auch so unter *Pequots u. Narragansetts*⦘

| I) Wolf Phratry | 1) Wolf | 2) Bear | 3) Dog | 4 Opossum |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| II) Turtle " " | 1) Little Turtle | 2) Mud Turtle | 3) Great Turtle | 4) Yellow Eel. |
| III) Turkey " " | 1) Turkey | 2) Crane | [3) Chicken] |  |

4) *Abenakis* (*bedeutet „rising sun [people]“*). *Dies tribe more closely connected mit den Micmacs als den New England Indians south of the Kennebeck.* *14 gentes*, worin verschiedene the same as among the *Ojibwas. Descent now in male line*, prohibition of intermarriage in gens now much weakened, office of Sachem hereditary in gens.

#### VI) Athapasco-Apache Tribes.

Ob die *Athapascans des Hudson’s Bay Territory* u. die *Apaches of New Mexico*, die *subdivisions eines original stock* sind, organized in gentes, nicht definitely ascertained. – *Hare and Red Knife Athapascans* (in Hudson’s Bay Territ.) – *Slave Lake Athapascans* in ditto.

Die *Kutchin* (Louchoux) der *Yukon river Region* ⦗*Northwest Territorium, British Northamerica*, südlich von den ex-russischen Küstenniederlassungen⦘ sind *Athapascans* u. bei ihnen (nach Brief of late *George Gibbs* an Morgan): Unter den *Kutchin „3 grades or classes of society* (soll heissen *totem*, die aber *in rank* verschieden sein mögen) ⦗u. in der Art, namentlich wo zum gens princip Eroberung hinzukömmt, können nach u. nach *die gentes* zur *Kastenbildung* Anlass geben? wo dann das Verbot der *intermarriage zwischen verschiednen gentes* ganz umkehrt die *archaische rule* der intermarriage *innerhalb the same gens*⦘ *a man does not marry into his own class, but takes a wife from some other*; *and that a chief from the highest may marry with a woman of the lowest without loss of caste.* ⦗Den Begriff *der caste* trägt der Briefschreiber hinein u. interpretirt sich so, dass ein Mann *nicht in seiner eignen gens heirathen* kann, wohl aber in gens einer andren brother- od. cousin phratry; zeigt aber, dass sobald *difference of rank zwischen den blutsverwandten gentes* entsteht, dieses in conflict mit dem *gentilen Princip* geräth u. die *gens* in ihr Gegentheil, *caste* versteinern kann.⦘ *The children belong to the grade of the mother.* ⦗welches also der Rangunterschied *zwischen gentes* ? *Brüder u. Schwestern aller gentes* finden sich in gentes jedes Rangs. Das Verwandtschaftsband lässt keine fixirte Aristokratie aufkommen, fraternity bleibt u. Gleichheitsgefühl.⦘ *The members of the same grade in the different tribes do not war with each other.*“

*Kolushes der Nordwestküste*, linguistisch closely related mit den *Athapascans*, haben *gensorganization*; *Gentes haben Thiernamen, descent in female line; right of succession in female line von uncle to nephew*, except the *principal Chief*, who is generally the most powerful of the family.

#### VII) Indian tribes of the Northwest Coast.

In einigen dieser tribes – ausser den Kolushes – prevails gentile organization. See: *Dall:* *„Alaska and its resources“*, u. namentlich *Bancroft:* *Pacific States, I, 109*.

#### VIII) Salish, Sahaptin u. Kootenay Tribes.

Dies die principal stocks der tribes des *Valley of the Columbia*; *ohne gentile organization*. Dies war der initial point der migrations der Ganowánian family, spreading over both divisions des Continent; their possessors besassen daher gentile organization, fell into decay and finally disappeared.

#### IX) Shoshonee Tribes.

*Die Comanches of Texas*, zusammen mit *Ute tribes, Bonnaks* (Panacks?), *Shoshonees* u. some other tribes gehören dazu.

*1859* (berichtet by Mathew Walker, a *Wyandote* halfblood, lived among the Comanches) hatten die *Comanches 6 gentes*:

| Comanche tribe. | Gentes. | 1) Wolf. | 2) Bear. | 3) Elk | 4) Deer. | 5) Gopher. (amerik. Erdeichhörnchen) | 6) Antelope |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

Da die Comanches gentes, so presumption, dass auch die other tribes dieses stock.

Hiermit schliesst Morgan ab mit den Indians *North of New Mexico*. Ihre grössere Anzahl zur Zeit der europ. Entdeckung in *Lower Status of Barbarism*, der remainder in *Upper Status of Savagery*. Organization into gentes u. descent in female line erscheinen ursprünglich universal. Ihr system *purely social*; *unit* die gens, *phratry, tribe, confederacy* the remaining members der organic series. Selbes bei *Aryan* u. *Semitic* tribes, when emerging from barbarism; also *system universal in ancient society*; inferentially had *a common origin* – the *punaluan group, giving origin to the gentes*; all – the *Aryan, Semitic, Uralian, Turanian* u. *Ganowánian families of mankind* point to a *common punaluan stock* – with *organization of gentes* engrafted upon it – of which all were derived, and finally differentiated into families.

#### X) Village Indians.

1) *Moqui Pueblo Indians*; still *in possession of their ancient communal houses*, 7 in number, near the Little Colorado in *Arizona, once a part of New Mexico*; living under their ancient institutions, represent *type of Indian life* von *Zuñi* (pueblo) (Neu Mexico) bis *Cuzco (North Peru)*. *Zuñi, Acoma, Taos* u. several other *New Mexico pueblos* haben selbe Struktur, worin gefunden von *Coronado* *(1540–1542)*. Bisher nichts Nennenswertes studirt über ihre innere Organization.

Die *Moquis* organized in gentes: (9), as follows:

| 1) Deer. 2) Sand. 3) Rain.│4) Bear. 5) Hare. 6) Prairie Wolf.│7) Rattlesnake. 8) Tobacco Plant. 9) Reed Grass│ |
|---|

*Dr. Ten Broeck,* Assistant Surgeon, U.S.A., lieferte dem Mr. Schoolcraft die *Moqui Legend* über origin of their villages. „Ihre *Grandmother* from her home in the West 9 races of men, *first the Deer* [race] u. so weiter die übrigen gentes. (cf. über die *Grandmother* der *Shawnees*, oben p. 57) Nachdem sie selbe gepflanzt on the spot wo nun die villages, *verwandelte sie selbe* (nämlich Deer, Sand, Rain, Bear etc) in *men* u. *diese built up the different pueblos*; u. die distinction of races, *Deer race, Sand race* etc is still kept up. They believe in *Metempsychosis* u. say, nach Tod werden sie *rückverwandelt werden in bears, deers* etc.; government hereditary, aber *nicht necessarily to the son of the incumbent*; for if they prefer any other blood relative, he is chosen.“ Here *also gentile organization* found in *lower state of barbarism*, aber *von diesem Punkt* an, sowohl im *remainder des North* als im *ganzen Süden* keine definite information, except in regard to the *Lagunas*. Aber still *traces left* in the *Early Spanish writers* u. *direct knowledge of it in a few later writers*.

There are *current traditions in many gentes*, wie bei den *Moquis*, von *transformation ihrer ersten progenitors aus dem animal*, or *inanimate object*, which became the symbol of the gens *(totem)* *, into men and women* (so bei der *Crane gens* unter den Ojibwas). Ferner *Anzahl von tribes*, die abstain *from eating the animal, whose name they bear*, doch dies far from universal.

2) *Lagunas.* (New Mexico) Aus *Address von Rev. Samuel Gorman* an die *„Historical Society of New Mexico“ 1860*:

„*Each town* is classed into *tribes or families* (read gentes), and *each of these groups* named after some animal, bird, herb, *timber, planet, or one of the 4 elements*. Im *pueblo of Laguna*, mit about 1000 inhabitants, 17 dieser tribes; some are called *deer*, some *rattlesnake*, some *corn*, some *wolf*, some *water* etc. *Children of same tribe as their mother*. And, according to ancient custom, *2 persons of the same tribe are forbidden to marry*; recently diese Gewohnheit nicht mehr so rigorös beobachtet wie anciently. *Their land is held in common*, but *after a person cultivates a lot*, he has a *personal claim to it, which he can sell to any one of the same community*; or else when he dies it belongs to his widow or daughter; or, *if he were a single man*, it remains *in his father’s* family.“ That wife and daughter *inherit from the father is doubtful*.

3) *Aztecs, Tezcucans u. Tlacopans, ditto the remaining Nahuatlac tribes in Mexico* – folgendes chapter.

4) *Mayas of Yucatan.*

*Herrera:* *„General History of America“* spricht oft von *„kindred“* mit regard to the *tribes in Mexico, Central America* u. *South America*, dass *gens* daraus hervorguckt. Er u. die andern early Spanish observers noticed that *large numbers of persons were bound together by the bond of kin* u. mention daher *the group* als *„kindred“*, weiter forschten sie nicht.

*Herrera* sagt u. a. von den *Mayas (Lond. ed. 1726. Stevens transl. III, 299)*: „they were wont to *observe their pedigrees very much*, and *therefore* (!) *thought themselves all related and were helpful to one another* … They did not marry *mothers*, or *sisters-in-law, nor any that bore the same name as their father*, which was looked upon as unlawful.“ The pedigree of an Indian *under their system of consanguinity* could have no significance apart from a gens. Sagt *Tylor* in his: *„Early History of Mankind“*: „The *analogy of the North American Indian custom* is therefore with *that of the Australian* in *making clanship on the female side a bar to marriage*, but if we go further down into *Central America*, the reverse custom, as in China, makes its appearance. *Diego de Landa* says of the *people of Yucatan* that *no one took a wife of his name*, on the father’s side, for this was a very vile thing among them; but they might marry cousins german on the mother’s side.“

#### XI. The South American Indian Tribes.

*Traces of the gens* found in *all parts of South America*, as well *as the actual presence of the Ganowánian system of consanguinity*, aber the subject nicht fully investigated.

Sprechend von den *numerous tribes der Andes* sagt *Herrera (General History of America)*: „this *variety of tongues* proceeded from the nations being divided in *races, tribes* or *clans*“. (der *clan* = *gens*) Jene tribes of the Andes, von denen er spricht, *brought by the Incas* under *a species of confederacy*. – Nachdem *E. B. Tylor* gesprochen v. Yukatan wo die *Descendenz in männlicher Linie* u. entsprechendem Ehverbot, sagt er: „ *Weiter südlich, unterhalb der Landenge erscheint die „clanship u. prohibition“ wieder* (reappear) auf *weiblicher* Seite, so in Brit. Guiana bei den *Arrawaks*, bei den *Guaranis* u. *Abiponen in Paraguay* (Deutsche Uebersetzung 363, 64.) – *Brett („Indian tribes of Guiana“)* remarks v. den *Indian Tribes in Guiana*: these *tribes* „*divided* into *families* (read *gentes*), each of which has a *distinct name, as the Siwidi, Karuafudi, Onisidi* etc … these all *descend in the female line*, and *no individual of either sex* is *allowed to marry another of the same family name*. Thus a woman of the Siwidi family bears the same name as her mother, but neither her father nor her husband can be of that family. Her children and the children of her daughters are prohibited from an alliance with any individual bearing the same name; though they may marry into the family of their father, if they choose etc.“

Mit Ausnahme der *Andeans*, die *South American tribes*, when discovered, either in *lower status of barbarism* or *in Status of Savagery*. Many of the *Peruvian tribes* concentrated unter *the government established bei the Inca village Indians* were in *Lower State of Barbarism*, if zu conclude von der imperfect description des *Garcillasso de la Vega*.

*Wurzel der gens im status of savagery; letzte Entwicklungsphase bei Greeks u. Romans (Upper Status of Barbarism).* Wo die *gentes* bei einem tribe of mankind gefunden in *their last form*, their remote ancestors must have possessed them *in the Archaic form*. Das Wichtige wäre die *Middle Phase* (in *Middle Status of Barbarism*) genau zu kennen; existirte im 16t Jhdt bei den *Village Indians*, aber Spanish colonists lost the golden opportunity – to understand a *condition of society*, deren *unit* (die gens) sie unfähig to pick up.

---

### Pt. II Ch. VII The Aztec Confederacy.

*Einziger stronghold der Aztecs* war das *Pueblo de Mexico*, mit its capture *their governmental fabric destroyed* u. substituted die *Rule der Spaniards*. Diese sahen im Aztec government Analogon europ. Monarchie, fälschten so their whole historical narrations; sind nur »historisch« mit Bezug auf *acts* der Spanier; *acts* u. *personal characteristics der Aztecs*; mit Bezug auf deren *Waffen, implements u. ustensils, fabrics, food and raiment* u. d.gl. Taugen nichts mit Bezug auf *Indian society u. gvt.* »they learned nothing and *knew nothing of either*«.

*Aztecs* u. their confederate tribes in *middle Status of Barbarism*: ohne *iron u. iron tools*; *ohne money; traded by barter of commodities*; sicher, dass sie prepared *one meal each day*, erst assen *Männer* für sich, dann *Weiber u. Kinder* für sich, hatten *weder tables noch chairs*.

*Commune tenure of lands* *;* *Life in large households composed of a number of related families* u. reasons for believing that they *practiced communism in living in the household*. Andrerseits: *they worked the native metals, cultivated by irrigation, manufactured coarse fabrics of cotton, constructed joint-tenement houses of adobe-bricks*, made *earthenware* of excellent quality.

Es existirte kein *„Kingdom of Mexico“*, wie es in den älteren descriptions heisst, noch *„Empire of Mexico“*, wie in den späteren getauft. Was die Spanier fanden, simply *»Confederacy of 3 tribes«*, dessen counterpart existirte in all parts of the continent. Das government administered by a *Council of Chiefs* mit cooperation eines *General Commander* *of the military bands.* *(principal war-chief)*

Die *3 tribes* were: 1) *Aztecs or Mexicans*; 2) *Tezcucans*; 3) *Tlacopans.*

Die *Aztecs* gehörten zu *7 tribes*, migrated vom *North, settled in u. near the valley of Mexico*, were among the historical tribes dort at time of Spanish Conquest. Alle diese *tribes* nannten sich *collectively »Nahuatlacs«* in their traditions, sprachen *dialects* der Nahuatlac common *(stock)* language. *Acosta* (1585 auf visit in Mexico) erzählt die *current tradition ihrer successiven Niederlassungen*.

1) *Sochimilcas* *„Nation of the Seeds of Flowers“*, settled beim *Lake Xochimilco*, auf *südlichem slope* des valley of Mexico.

2) *Chalcas* *„People of Mouths“*, kamen viel später, settled neben den 1) on *Lake Chalco*.

3) *Tepanecans.* *„People of the Bridge“*, settled at *Azcopozalco, west* of *Lake Tezcuco*, on the western slope of the valley.

4) *Culhuas.* *„A crooked People“*, settled *on east side* of *Lake Tezcuco* – afterwards known as *Tezcucans*.

5) *Tlatluicans.* *„Men of the Sierra“*, finding the *valley appropriated around the Lake*, passed *over the Sierra, südlich* u. *settled on the other side*.

6) *Tlascalans.* *„Men of Bread“*; lebten Zeitlang mit den *Tepanecans*, settled dann *beyond* the valley, eastward *at Tlascala*.

7) *Aztecs*, came last, occupied the site of the present city of Mexico.

*Acosta bemerkt*, dass sie *(die Aztecs!)* came from *far countries lying toward the North*, wo sie *nun* ein kingdom gestiftet, das sie *Neu Mexico* nennen. Selbe Tradition bei Clavigero u. Herrera.

Die *Tlacopans* nicht mentioned, wahrscheinlich *subdivision* der *Tepanecans*, remaining in the original area of that tribe, während der remainder to a territory immediately South of the *Tlascalans*, wo gefunden under name of *Tepeacas*.

Die tradition enthält 2 facts: 1) *7 tribes of common origin*, speaking *related dialects*, 2) that *they came from the North*. They were originally *one people*, durch segmentation naturally fallen into *several tribes*.

Die *Aztecs* fanden die best situations des Thals occupirt u. nach verschiedentlichem Ortswechsel *settled upon* a *small expanse of dry land in Mitte of marsh* bordered with *fields of pedregal* u. mit *natural ponds*. (Teich, Weiher) Hier gründeten sie das *Pueblo of Mexico (Tenochtitlan) 1325* (nach *Clavigero*), 196 J. vor Span. Conquest; waren schwach in number u. poor in condition. Aber entlang ihrem site flossen in Lake Tezcuco *rivulets v. den Western Hills* u. die outlets der *Lakes Xochimilco* u. *Chalco*. Vermittelst *causeways* (Chausseen, *Fahrdämmen*) und *Deichen* umgaben sie ihr *Pueblo* mit *artificial Teich* (pond) von large extent, das *Wasser being furnished by the named sources*. Da das *Niveau des Lake Tezcuco höher als jezt* war, gab er ihnen, nach vollendetem Werk, die *sicherste position* aller pueblos im Thal. Ihr *mechanical engineering* wodurch sie dies Resultat erreichten, one of the greatest achievements der Aztecs.

Zur *Zeit der span. Erobrung, 5 der 7 tribes – Aztecs, Tezcucans, Tlacopans, Sochimilcas* u. *Chalcans* residirten im valley. Dies of limited area, *about equal to the State of Rhode Island*; es war a *mountain or upland basin ohne outlet*, oval in Form, längest von Nord to Süd, 120 miles in circuit, *embracing about 1600 □ miles* excluding the surface covered by water; das *valley selbst surrounded by a series of hills*, one range rising above [another] mit depressions between, *encompassing the valley with a mountain barrier*. Die tribes residirten *in some 30 Pueblos*, wovon *Mexico the largest*. Abundant evidence, dass der Rest des modernen Mexico’s besetzt durch zahlreiche tribes, die vom Nahuatlac verschiedne Sprachen redeten, u. deren *Majorität unabhängig*. Die *remaining Nahuatlac tribes*, die *ausserhalb des Thals v. Mexico* lebten, waren die *Tlascalans*, die *Cholulans* (supposed *subdivision* der former), die *Huexotzincos*, die *Meztitlans* (supposed subdivision der *Tezcucans*) *die alle unabhängig*, endlich die *Tepeacas u. Tlatluicans, die abhängig*. Bedeutende Anzahl *andrer tribes*, bildend *about 17 territorial groups* mit *ebensoviel stock languages*, hatten inne den *Rest v. Mexico*; fast dies genaue Wiederholung – in *their state of disintegration u. independence* der *tribes der U. States u. British Americas, zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung*, ein Jahrhundert od. mehr später.

*1426 die Aztec Confederacy formed*; vorher wenig historisch wichtige events unter den *valley tribes*; uneinig, belligerent, ohne Einfluss jenseits ihrer unmittelbaren Lokalitäten. Um jene Zeit bei *Aztecs* preponderance of numbers u. strength. Unter ihrem *war chief Itzcoatl* overthrown die *frühere Supremacy der Tezcucans* u. *Tlacopans* u. als Folge der früheren wars gegeneinander errichtet *league* oder aber *confederacy*. Es war *Defensiv- u. Offensive Alliance zwischen den 3 tribes*, mit *stipulation für Vertheilung unter ihnen der spoils* in festgesetzten Proportionen u. der *tributes of subjugated tribes*. Jezt schwierig zu bestimmen, ob die Verbindung *League* (at pleasure verlängerbar u. auflösbar) od. *confederacy*, i.e. *consolidated organization wie der Bund der Iroquois*. Jeder tribe blieb *independent in seinem local self-government*; die 3 *ein Volk nach Aussen* mit *Bezug auf Angriff u. Vertheidigung*. *Jeder tribe* hatte seinen eignen *council of chiefs u. its own head war-chief*, aber der *Aztec war-chief* war *commander-in-chief der confederate bands*; to be inferred davon, dass *Tezcucans* u. *Tlacopans* had a *voice* in *election* u. *confirmation des Aztec war-chief*; zeigt dass *Aztec influence* predominated *bei Gründung der Confederacy*.

*1426–1520* – 94 Jahre – die Confederacy had *frequent wars mit adjacent tribes* u. besonders mit den feeble *Village Indians, südlich vom Thal v. Mexico to the Pacific* u. *östlich bis Guatemala*. Sie begannen mit den nächsten, overcame them; the *villages* in dieser area were *numerous*, aber *small*, oft nur *a single large structure of adobe-brick* or of *stone, in some cases – several such structures grouped together*. Diese *forays* wiederholt mit *avowed object of gathering spoil, imposing tribute, capturing prisoners for sacrifice*, bis die *principal tribes* in dieser area *subdued* (mit some exceptions) u. *tributary gemacht*, incl. die *scattered villages der Totonacs* nahe bei present *Vera Cruz*.

Die *Aztecs*, wie die *northern Indians*, neither *exchanged* or *released prisoners*; the *stake* their doom bei den Northern Indians unless *saved by adoption*. Unter den erstern – unter *Pfaffeneinfluss* – offered as *sacrifice* to the principal god worshipped. *Unter den American aborigines* erscheint *organized priesthood* erst im Middle Status of Barbarism, connection *mit der invention of idols* u. *human sacrifices* as a means of acquiring authority over mankind. Wahrscheinlich *selbe Geschichte* in the principal tribes of mankind.

*Mit Bezug auf Gefangne 3 successive usages*, in den *3 sub-periods of Barbarism*; in *1st Period* burned at *the stake, in 2ter* den *gods geopfert*, in *3ter wurden sie zu Sklaven gemacht*; bei allen 3 das zäh bis tief in s.g. Civilization sich erhaltende Princip dass *prisoner forfeited to his captor*.

Die *Aztec confederacy* versuchte nicht *in selbe* die subdued tribes zu absorbiren; unter gentile institutions machte das *barrier of language* impossible; they were left to the *government of their chiefs* u. ihren alten customs. Manchmal a *collector of tribute resided* amongst them. Member of government konnte man nur durch *gens* werden, aber *Aztecs* nicht far advanced enough – wie *Romans* z. B. – to remove the gentes of the subdued tribes in ihren eignen Sitz u. incorporating them. Aus demselben Grund – u. wegen des Sprachhindernisses – konnten *Colonists* of Aztec confederacy nicht assimilate the conquered tribes. *Aztec confederacy* gewann daher nicht Kraft durch ihren terrorism od. *by holding these tribes* under burdens, inspired mit enmity u. stets ready for revolt. Eben die *remaining Nahuatlac tribes nicht in der Confederacy*; die *Xochimilcas* u. *Chalcans* waren *nominell unabhängig*, keine members der confederacy, aber *tributary*.

Die *confederacy* was confronted durch *hostile* u. *independent tribes*, so die *Mechoacans im Westen*, die *Otomies* im *Northwest* (scattered bands dieser near the valley had been placed under tribute), die *Chichimecs* or *wild tribes im North der Otomies*, die *Meztitlans* im *Nordosten*, die *Tlascalans im Osten*, die *Cholulans* u. *Huexotzincos* im *Südosten*, u. über diese hinaus, die *tribes der Tabasco*, der *Chiapas* u. der *Zapotecos* *(Zapotecs)*. In diesen verschiednen Richtungen erstreckte sich die *dominion der Aztec Confederacy* nicht *100 miles beyond the valley of Mexico* u. a portion der *surrounding area* unzweifelhaft *neutral ground* trennend die confederacy von perpetual enemies. Aus diesen limited materials fabricated the *kingdom of Mexico* der spanischen Chroniken, später *magnified* in das *Aztec Empire* *of current history*.

Die *Bevölkerung* des valley u. *Pueblo of Mexico* excessiv angeschlagen auf *250,000 Persons*: gäbe für □ *mile* about *160 persons*, fast *3mal* *die present average population des State of New York* u. about *equal to the average population of Rhode Island*. Sie hatten *weder flocks noch herds, noch field agriculture*. Von jener Population für *Pueblo v. Mexico* vielleicht to be assigned *30,000*.

*Phantasiezahlen*: *Zuazo* (visiting *Mexico* in *1521*) giebt ihm *60,000 Einwohner*, ebenso der *anonymous conqueror*, who accompanied *Cortes (H. Ternaux-Compans*, X, 92); *Gomora u. Martyr* verwandeln die *60,000 Einwohner* in *60,000 Häuser* u. dies angenommen durch *Clavigero, Herrera* und last, *Prescott („Conquest of Mexico“)*. *Solis* macht aus den *60,000 Einwohnern des Zuazo* – *60,000 families*, würde geben population of 300,000, während *London* damals nur *145,000 Einw. hatte (Black’s London)*. Torquemada, cited by *Clavigero*, macht aus 60,000 houses – *120,000* *!* The *houses* im *Pueblo of Mexico were zweifelsohne in general large communal, or joint-tenement houses*, wie die in *Neu-Mexico* zur *selben Periode*, gross genug zu *accomodiren* von *10 bis 50 u. 100 families in each*.

Die *Aztec confederacy* – in plan and symmetry – *unter* der der *Iroquois*.

Das *Pueblo of Mexico* war *largest in America*; romantisch gelegen mitten in einem künstlichen See, *large joint-tenement houses* plastered over mit gypsum, wodurch sie *brilliant weiss*, schlug es v. weitem span. Imagination; hence die extravagance of opinion.

*Bei den Aztecs* found: *ornamental gardens, magazines of weapons u. military costumes, improved apparel, manufactured fabrics of cotton* of superior workmanship, *improved implements u. ustensils u. increased variety of food; picture writing*, mainly to indicate the *tribute in kind* every subjugated village had to pay (these *tributes* enforced mit system u. rigour of execution were *manufactured fabrics* u. *horticultural products*); *a calendar* for measuring time, *open markets* for barter of *commodities*, ferner *Administrative offices* to meet the demands of a growing municipal life; *priesthood*, with a *temple worship* u. a *ritual* including human sacrifices. *Office of head war-chief* had risen into increased importance etc.

#### 1) Gentes u. Phratries.

*Spanish writers* (contemporär der Erobrung) sahen die *Aztec Gentes* nicht; aber for *more than 200 years* sahen die *Anglo-Americans* sie nicht bei den *Iroquois*; sie bemerkten früh Existenz of clans mit besondren Thiernamen, aber nicht als *social unit*, worauf *tribe* u. *confederacy* aufgebaut. *Herrera* (etc) spricht of *„kindred“* als of *group* *(gens)* u. *„lineage“* (dies *phratry* bei einigen writers, bei anderen *gens*) .

Das *pueblo of Mexico* geographisch getheilt in *4 quarters*, jedes occupied by a *»lineage«* (phratry) u. jedes *quarter »subdivided«*; each *subdivision* occupied by a *community of persons* bound together by some *common tie* (gens). ⦗In *Mexico* nur 1 tribe; der der *Aztecs*⦘

Selbes erzählt v. *Tlascalans* ( *Herrera*, *Clavigero*): their pueblo divided in *4 quarters*, each *occupied by* a *»lineage«*; each had its own *Teuctli* (head war chief), distinctive military costume, its own standard u. blazon … The *war-chiefs* were *ex officio members of the Council*. ( *Clavigero*) Ebenso *Cholula* getheilt in 6 quarters.

Da die Aztecs in their *social subdivisions* had arranged unter sich selbst the *parts of the pueblo* they were severally to occupy, from this their mode of settlement resulted *geographical districts*.

*Nach Acosta* giebt *Herrera* short sketch of the *building of Mexico*, erst „*a chapel of lime* and *stone for the idol*“. *Idol* befiehlt dann dem Priester, dass *sein* (des idol’s) *Haus* in *Mitte* bleiben soll; die *chief men* sollen divide themselves, with their kindred und followers, into *four wards* or *quarters*, and each party to build as they liked best; dies die 4 *quarters of Mexico*, nun called *St. John, St. Mary the round, St. Paul* u. *St. Sebastian*. Nachdem diese divisions made, befahl *das idol* wieder unter sich zu distribuiren die gods he should name, and *each ward to appoint peculiar places* where the gods should be worshipped … So *every quarter had several smaller wards* in it according to the number of their gods this idol called them to adore … Nach dieser partition, die, die sich injured dachten, mit kindred and followers, went away to seek some other place, nämlich *Tlatelulco*, das in der Nähe.

Diese Erzählung procedirt, wie Mode, nach *fertigem Resultat*: erst *kin* in 4 divisions getheilt u. diese in *smaller subdivisions*.

*The actual process ist genau das Gegentheil*: erst each *body of kindred* (gens) located into an area by themselves, u. die *several bodies (phratries)* in such a way as to bring *those most nearly related* in geographical connection mit einander.

Also wenn lowest division *a gens* each *quarter* occupied by a *phratry, composed of related gentes*. (*Grecian u. Roman tribes* settled in dieser Art in *towns or cities*) Each *gens of the same phratry* (die 4 quarters v. Mexico) in the main locally by itself. Da husband u. wife of different gentes u. die children of gens des Vaters od. der Mutter, je nachdem gens in male or female line, the *preponderating number in each locality would be of the same gens*.

Their *military organization* based upon these *social divisions*. In den *Mexican Chronicles* by the native author *Tezozomoc* (Morgan erhielt dies von *A. F. Bandelier, of Highland, Illinois*, engaged upon translation dieses Buchs), referring to a proposed invasion of *Michoacan*, sprach *Axaycatl* zu den 2 Mexican captains etc u. all den andern u. fragte „*ob alle* Mexicans were prepared, *after the usages u. customs of each ward*; if so, they should begin to march u. that all were to reunite at *Matlatzinco Toluca*“; dies indicates *military organization nach gentes u. phratries*.

Auch die *land tenure* zeigt hin auf *gentes*. *Clavigero* sagt: „*the lands* called *Altepetlalli* ⦗*altepetl = pueblo*⦘, that is those of the communities of cities and villages, were *divided into* as *many parts as there were districts in a city*, and *every district possessed its own part* entirely distinct from, and independent of every other. *These lands could not be alienated by* any means whatever.“

Jede dieser *communities* war a *gens*, whose *localization* war nothwendige Consequenz ihres socialen systems. Die *community machte den District* ( *Clavigero* puts the district for the community) and *which owned the lands in common*.

Das *element of kin*, which united the community, ausgelassen v. Clavigero, ist ergänzt durch *Herrera*. Er sagt:

„There were other *lords*, called *major parents* ⦗*Sachems*⦘ whose *landed property all belonged to one lineage* ⦗*gens*⦘, which lived *in one district* and there were many of them when the lands were distributed at the time New Spain was peopled; and *each lineage received its own*, and have possessed them until now; and these *lands did not belong to any one in particular*, but to *all in common*, and he who possessed them *could not sell* them, *although he enjoyed them for life* and *left them to his sons and heirs*; and *if a house* (*alguna casa*, feudal expression des Spaniers) died out, they were left to the nearest parent to whom they were given and to no other, who administered the same district or lineage.“

Die *feudalen Vorstellungen des Spaniers* u. die *indianischen Verhältnisse*, die er sah, laufen hier durch einander – aber trennbar. Der Aztec *»Lord«* was der *Sachem*, civil chief of *a body of consanguinei* of whom he is called »the *major parent*«. Die lands gehörten jenem body *(gens)* in common; when the *chief* died, his place (according to Herrera) ging über auf seinen Sohn; was überging, war in diesem Fall das *office of Sachem*, nicht das land, das *niemand in trust »possessed«*; hatte er keinen Sohn „the lands were left to the nearest major parent“, d.h. *another person* was elected *Sachem*.

*»Lineage«* kann hier nichts anders sein wie *gens* u. *office hereditary in the gens*, wie bei den andern Indians, *elective* unter den members der gens; wenn descent in male line, choice would fall on one of the sons of the defunct Sachem, own or collateral, or upon a brother, own or collateral etc.

The *»lineage«* of Herrera u. the *»communities«* of Clavigero offenbar selbe organizations – *gentes*. Der *Sachem* had no title over lands u. konnte sie transmit to nobody. Spanier betrachteten die Sache so, weil he held an office perpetually maintained u. weil there was a *body of lands* perpetually belonging to *a gens* over which he was a *sachem*; dieser (ausser seinen functions of chief der gens) hatte so wenig *authority über die persons* (die ihm die Spanier zuschreiben) wie über die lands.

Was sie über inheritance sagen, ebenso confus u. contradictory; nur wichtig hier, soweit sie show *bodies of consanguinei* u. the inheritance of the children from their fathers, im welchem Fall *descent in male line*.

#### 2) Existence u. Functions des Council of Chiefs.

Für Existenz eines *Aztec Council* – evidence; fast nichts über seine Function u. Anzahl seiner Glieder.

*Brasseur de Bourbourg* sagt „nearly *all the towns or tribes* divided into *4 clans or quarters*, whose *chiefs* constitute the *great council*“; später sagt er, der *Aztec Council* habe aus 4 bestanden.( *Bourbourg, Popol Vuh*)

*Diego Duran* – (schrieb seine *„History of the Indies of New Spain and Islands of the Main Lands“ 1579–1581*, also *vor Acosta* u. *Tezozomoc*) – sagt: „In Mexico, *nach Wahl eines Königs* wählten sie *4 lords of the brothers or near relations of this king* whom they gave the *titles of princes*, and *from whom they had to choose the king* … These 4 lords or titles after being elected princes, they made them *the royal council*, like the presidents and judges of the supreme council, *without whose opinion nothing could be done*.“

*Acosta* nennt die same 4 offices ⦗Tlacachcalcatl, Tlacatecal, Ezuauacatl, u. Fillancalque⦘, nennt die tenants dieser offices *„electors“* u. [remarks that] „all these 4 dignities were of the great council, without whose advice the king might not do anything of importance.“

*Herrera* places diese offices in 4 grades, sagt dann: „These 4 sorts of noblemen were of the supreme council, without whose advice the king was to do nothing of moment, and *no king could be chosen but what was [of] one of these 4 orders*.“ »King« für *principal war chief* u. *»princes«* für *Indian chiefs*. Als die *Huexotzincos* delegates nach Mexico sandten zum Vorschlag einer Allianz gegen die Tlascalans, sagte ihnen – nach Tezozomoc – *Montezuma*: „Brothers and sons, you are welcome, rest yourselves awhile, for although I am king indeed *I alone cannot satisfy you, but only together with all the chiefs of the sacred Mexican senate*.“ Hier *material point* wie in den obigen accounts: *Existence of a supreme council, with authority over the action of the principal war-chief*. Die *limitation des Council to 4* unwahrscheinlich; *so* würde der *Council represent* nicht den *Aztec tribe*, sondern the *small body of kinsmen* aus welchen der *military commander* was to be chosen. Aber im *indianischen* System (und everywhere else unter gentile institution) jeder *chief represents a constituency* u. die *chiefs together represent the tribe*. Manchmal gemacht *a selection from them* to form a general council; dann aber stets durch an *organic provision* fixing the number, and providing for their perpetual maintenance.

Der *Tezcucan Council* of 14 members ( *Ixtlilxochitl*, *Hist. Chichimeca*, Kingsborough, Mexican Antiq. IX, p. 243); der *Council at Tlascala* was *a numerous body*; wir finden ebenso a *Cholulan* u. a *Michoacan council*, aber *Clavigero* sagt mit *Bezug auf Aztecs*: „In the history of the conquest we shall find *Montezuma* in *frequent deliberation* with *his council* on the pretensions of the Spaniards. We *do not know the number of each Council, nor do historians furnish us with the lights to illustrate such a subject*.“

Sofern der *Aztec Council* limited *to 4 members, all of the same lineage*, it is presented in *unwahrscheinlicher* Form. ⦗Mögen Spanier dem *Tribal Council*, aus den Chiefs der gentes bestehend, nicht fälschlich untergeschoben haben die *gens aus der principal war chief u. vielleicht 4 andre offices zu wählen*? Ganz wie z. B. der wampum keeper aus bestimmter gens bei Iroquois zu wählen? Amt konnte hereditary *an gens* gekommen sein.⦘

Jeder tribe in *Mexico* u. *Central America had its Council of chiefs*.

Die *Aztec Confederacy* scheint keinen *General Council* gehabt zu haben, *composed of the principal chiefs of the 3 tribes*, im Unterschied v. dem separate council jedes tribes. In diesem Fall wäre *Aztec Confederacy* nur *League* gewesen, offensive u. defensive, u. *as such under the primary control of the Aztec tribe*. Dies noch to elucidate.

#### 3) Tenure u. Functions des Office of Principal War-chief.

Der Name des office des Montezuma– *Teuctli*, war-chief; als member des *Council of chiefs* er manchmal genannt *Tlatoani* (= speaker). This office of a *general military commander* the highest known to the Aztecs, war sonst same als der Haupt *war-chief* der *Iroquois Confederacy*. Das office machte seinen Träger ex officio *member of the council of chiefs*. The title of *Teuctli* added als a sort of surname wie: *Chichimeca-Teuctli, Pil-Teuctli* etc. Bei *Clavigero* heissts: „The teuctli took *precedency* of all others in the *Senate*, both in the order of sitting and voting, and were permitted to have *a servant behind them* (der *sub-sachem* der Iroquois) with a seat, which was esteemed a privilege of the highest honour.“

Die *Spanish writers* brauchen nie das Wort *»teuctli«*, verwandeln es in *king* für Montezuma u. dessen successors. *Ixtlilxochitl*, of mixed Tezcucan u. Spanish descent nennt die *head war-chiefs of Mexico, Tezcuco* u. *Tlacopan* nur *»war-chief« teuctli* u. [mit] andrem Wort to *indicate the tribe*. (*teuctli* = war-chief = general) Obiger *Ixtlilxochitl* sagt, sprechend von der *division* *of* power zwischen den 3 chiefs, when the confederacy was formed etc:

„The king of *Tezcuco* was saluted ⦗durch die assembled chiefs der 3 tribes⦘ by the title of *Aculhua Teuctli*, also by that of *Chichimecatl Teuctli* which his ancestors had worn and which was the mark of the empire ⦗das Beiwort: tribal designation⦘; *Itzcoatzin* (Itzcoatl), his uncle, received the title of *Culhua Teuctli*, because he reigned over the *Toltecs-Culhuas* ⦗war war-chief of the Aztecs, when the confederacy was formed⦘; and *Totoquihuatzin den of Tecpanuatl Teuctli*, which had been the title of Azcaputzalco. Since that time their successors have received the same title.“

Die Spanier stimmen überein, dass das office Montezuma held was *elective* with the choice confined to a particular family, u. was sie wundert, nicht *von Vater auf Sohn*, sondern v. *Bruder zu Bruder*, oder von *Onkel auf Neffen*. Unter der immediate notice der conquerors fanden 2 Wahlen statt; dem *Montezuma* folgte sein *Bruder* (unbekannt, ob own od. collateral) *Cuitlahua*; nach Tod dieses elected *sein Neffe Guatemozin* (own or collateral nephew?) Schon bei früheren *Wahlen* Bruder dem Bruder gefolgt od. Neffe dem Onkel. ( *Clavigero*) Aber wer wählte? *Duran* (sieh oben) bringt 4 *chiefs* as *electors*, denen zugefügt 1 *elector* von *Tezcuco* u. 1 von *Tlacopan*, zus. 6, invested with power to choose from a particular family the principal war-chief. Dies entspricht nicht dem System of an *elective Indian office*.

*Sahagun* ( *„Historia General etc“*, ch. XVIII) sagt: „When the king or lord died, *all the senators* called *Tecutlatoques*, and the *old men of the tribe* called *Achcacauhti*, and also the *captains and old warriors* called *Yautequioaques*, and other prominent captains in warlike matters, and *also the priests* called *Tlenamacaques*, or *Papasaques* – *all these assembled* in the royal houses. Then they deliberated upon and determined who had to be the lord, and chose one of the most noble *of the lineage* of the past lords, who should be a valiant man, experienced in warlike matters, daring and brave. … When they agreed upon one they at once named him as lord, but *this election was not made by ballots or votes*, but all together conferring at last agreed upon the man … *the lord once elected* they also elected *4 others* which were like senators, and had to be always with the lord, and be informed of all the business of the kingdom.“

Hatten *die Aztecs gentes*, the office hereditary in a particular gens, but elective among its members; would pass (wie der *Sahagun* von den Aztecs oben erzählt) by *election within the gens*, von *brother to brother* od. von *uncle to nephew*, aber nie von Vater to son (nämlich bei descent in *female line*, wie bei den Iroquois). Diese *succession* bei der Wahl der Aztecs *v. war-chiefs* beweist dass sie *gentes* hatten u. with *respect to this office* wenigstens noch descent in female line.

*Morgan conjecturirt: office held by Montezuma* hereditary in a gens (the *eagle* was the blazon or *totem* on the house occupied by Montezuma), deren members ihn aus ihrer Zahl wählten; diese *nomination* then submitted *separately* to the *4 lineages* *(phratries)* of the *Aztecs* for acceptance or rejection; auch den *Tezcusans* u. *Tlacopans*, direct interested in Wahl des general commander. Nachdem sie severally considered u. confirmed the nomination *each division appointed a person* to *signify their concurrence*; hence the 6 miscalled »electors«; die *4 high chiefs* der Aztecs, mentioned as electors, wahrscheinlich the *4 war-chiefs* of the 4 »lineages« od. phratries der Aztecs, like the 4 war-chiefs of the 4 lineages of the Tlascalans; ihre function nicht to elect, sondern to ascertain durch Conferenz mit einander, ob die choice made by the gens had been concurred in, and if so to announce the result.

*Absetzungsrecht* folgt v. *Wahlrecht*, where the term was for life. Als Montezuma, durch intimidation, sich von seiner Residenz nach Quartier des Cortez geleiten lässt, wo er placed under confinement, the *Aztecs zunächst paralyzed*. – In den *West Indias* hatten die Herrn Spanier entdeckt, dass wenn der *cazique eines tribe* caught u. als *Gefangner* gehalten, die *Indians paralyzed* refused to fight. Im Besitz dieser Kenntniss, sobald sie auf’s Festland kamen, suchten sie den *principal chief to entrap*, by *force* or *fraud*, u. hielten ihn gefangen bis ihr Zweck erreicht war. So *Cortez* mit *Montezuma*; so *Pizarro* when he seized *Atahuallpa*. Unter den Indians selbst *prisoner put to death*; if a *principal chief*, the *office reverted to the tribe* u. was at once filled. The Action des people (durch Spaniards) paralyzed by novel circumstances; *prisoner hier alive* u. in *possession of his office*. Cortez put *the Aztecs in this position*. Erst warteten sie einige Wochen, hoffend die Spaniards would retire; dann aber setzten sie *Montezuma* ab *for want of resolution*, wählten seinen Bruder an seine Stelle, *assaulted gleich darauf die Spanish quarters* mit great fury u. *vertrieben* sie schliesslich aus *ihrem Pueblo*. *Cortez* sent Marina zu Montezuma ihn zu fragen ob er glaube, sie hätten government in hands von new commander gegeben? (Alles dies *Herrera*) Der replied: „they would not presume to choose a king in Mexico whilst he was living“, geht dann auf’s Dach des Hauses, addressirt his countrymen u. (nach *Clavigero*) erhielt Antwort von an *Aztec warrior*: „Hold your peace, you effeminate scoundrel, born to weave and spin; these dogs keep you a prisoner, you are a coward“; sie schossen dann mit arrows auf ihn u. stoned ihn, er starb kurz nachher von der Demüthigung; der *war-chief*, in diesem assault der Aztecs commandirend, war sein Bruder *Cuitlahua*.

Kein Grund anzunehmen, vielmehr alles dagegen, dass *Montezuma* had any power over the *civil affairs der Aztecs*. Aber *functions of a priest* u., wie *Herrera* sagt, auch of a *judge*, attached to *his office* of *principal war chief* … *Council* hatte also Recht, wie to elect, so to *depose*. – Die Spanier selbst erst anerkennen, dass die *Aztec confederacy* – *a league or confederacy of tribes*. Wie konnten sie daraus *Aztec monarchy* fabriciren?

## Pt. II. Ch. VIII. The Grecian Gens.

About *850*. B.C. begins civilization unter *Asiatic Greeks* mit Homeric poems; unter den *European Greeks* about *century* later mit *Hesiodic* poems. Period vorher v. several 1000nd years, während deren Hellenen advancing durch lower Status of Barbarism; ihre ältesten traditions finden sie schon established in Grecian peninsula, auf eastern border of Mediterranean u. den intermediate u. adjacent islands. *Aeltere branch desselben Stock*, wovon *Pelasgians* die chief representatives, hatten vorher grösseren Theil derselben Area occupirt, in time either *hellenized* od. *forced durch Hellenen into emigration*.

*Pelasgians u. Hellenes* organized in *gentes, phratries* (nicht common to the Dorian tribes. *Müller’s „Dorier“*) u. *tribes*; in einigen Fällen die organic series nicht complete, aber überall *gens* die *unit of organization*; *Council of chiefs*; *agora* od. *assembly of the people*; u. *βασιλεύς* or military commander. *Modifications* mit Entwicklung forced upon *gens*, nämlich: 1) *change von female to male descent*; 2) *intermarriage in gens permitted in case of female orphans u. heiresses*; 3) *children* had *gained an exclusive inheritance of their father’s* [property]. Hellenes were in *fragmentary tribes* analog to Indians etc.

*Griechische society* comes first under notice about *1st Olympiade (776 B.C.)*; von da *bis legislation of Cleisthenes* (509 B.C.) vorgehend Uebergang von *gentile* in *political (civil) Organization*. ⦗Er hätte sagen sollen dass *political* hier *Sinn des Aristoteles* hat = *städtisch* u. *politisches animal* = *Stadtbürger*.⦘ Die *Township, mit dem fixed property it contained* u. the people who inhabited [it] for the time being, was to become the unit of organization; *gentilis* transformed into *civis*. The *relations of the individual to his gens*, which were *personal, had to be transferred to the township* and become *territorial*; der *demarch* (Vorsteher der deme) der township taking in some sense *the place of the chief of the gens*.

*Property* was the *new element that had been gradually remoulding Grecian institutions* to prepare for this *change*; nachdem several centuries elapsed in Versuchen ihn auf *Basis der gens* auszuführen. *Distinct schemes verschiedner Art* of legislation tried in the various Grecian communities who copied more or less each other’s experiments, all tending to the same result.

Unter *Athenians legislation of Theseus* (Tradition); *624 B.C. Draco*; *594 B.C. Solon*; *509 B.C. Cleisthenes*.

*Bei Beginn der historischen Periode* die *Jonians of Attica* divided in *4 tribes*: *Geleontes, Hopletes, Aegicores* u. *Argades*.

⦗*Stamm φυλή*; dann *φρατρία* od. φρατορία; *φράτωρ* Glied einer phratry; *Γένος Geschlecht* ⦗*auch: Nation u. Stamm*⦘. »Die *Geschlechterphylen* gewöhnlich in Unterabtheilungen – *Phratrien*, diese wieder in *Geschlechter*; ⦗Ausser Γένος (τό) (Γενω) kommt aber bei *Homer Γενεά*, *jonisch γενεή* u. zwar für *Stamm, Geburt, Familie*, Nachkommenschaft [vor].⦘ die *Geschlechter* wieder abgetheilt in *οἶκοι (Häuser od. Familien)*; die *Unterabtheilungen* dagegen der *topischen Phylen* sind *Gaue (δῆμοι)* od. *Ortschaften* (κῶμαι) … *ursprünglich*, auch wo Geschlechterphylen waren, *wohnten die Genossen eines Stammes zusammen im selben Theil des Landes*, ebenso die *Genossen einer Phratrie* u. *eines Geschlechts*, so dass auch hier mit der *Eintheilung des Volks* zugleich eine Eintheilung des Landes in grössere od. kleinere Districte verbunden war. – Bei den *topischen Phylen kamen lediglich die Wohnsitze in Betracht*. Später dies doch nicht so streng gehalten, dass *Verlegung des Wohnsitzes aus einem Phylendistrict in andern* nothwendig auch Versetzung in andre Phyle herbeigezogen hätte.« (*134, 135. Schoemann. I.*) *Einer Phyle*, u. in derselben *einer Phratrie* od. [einem] δῆμος (*Gau*) anzugehören war überall *wesentliches Merkmal u. Bedingung des Bürgerthums* … wovon *die nicht in jenen Abtheilungen begriffenen Landeseinwohner ausgeschlossen*. Nähres über letztere ib. p. 135 sq.⦘

Die 4 Attischen tribes – *Geleontes, Aegicores, Hopletes, Argades* – selben Dialekt sprechend, occupying a common *territory*, had *coalesced* into a nation, waren vorher aber wahrscheinlich blosse *confederacy*. ⦗*Hermann (Political Antiquities of Greece)* mentions the *confederacies* of *Athens, Aegina, Prasia, Nauplia* etc.⦘ Each *Attic tribe* composed of *3 phratries*, each *phratry* of *30 gentes*, hence 4 (tribes) × *3 phr.* od. *12 × 30* gentes = *360 gentes*; phratries u. tribes constant, aber Anzahl der gentes variirt.

*Dorians* generally found in *3 tribes* – *Hylleis*, *Pamphyli* u. *Dymanes* at Sparta, Argos, Sicyon, Corinth, Troezen etc wo sie verschiedne nations bildeten u. *jenseits des Peloponnes* in *Megara* etc. 1 or more *non-Dorian tribes* in some cases united mit ihnen wie in *Corinth, Sicyon, Argos*.

In all cases der *Grecian tribe* presupposes *gentes*, selben Dialekt redend; Phratrie kann fehlen. In *Sparta* die *ὠβή* (*ὠβάξω* lakonisch in *ὠβάς* eintheilen, *ὠβάτης* Glied einer *ὠβή*). Jeder tribe enthielt *10 ὠβαί* (?) Phratrien? Von ihrer Function nichts bekannt; in der ancient *Rhetra* des Lykurg die tribes u. obês directed to be maintained unaltered.

Social system der Athenians: 1) *Γένος gens*, founded upon *kin*; dann *φρατρία*, auch *φράτρα*, from segmentation of an original gens, brotherhood of gentes; dann *φῦλον*, später *φυλή*, *tribe* composed of several phratries; dann *people* or *nation* composed of several tribes. *Confederacy of tribes* kommt früh vor (die *tribes occupying independent territories*), led to no important results. Likely dass die 4 tribes, erst confederated, dann *coalesced*, after *having collected in one territory under pressure from other tribes*.

*Grote*, in his *„History of Greece“* stellt Sache so dar: „*Phratries* u. *gentes* seem aggregations of *small primitive unities into larger* … independent of, and do *not presuppose the tribe … basis of the whole* the *house, hearth or family* (οἶκος), a *number of which*, greater or less, composed the *Gens* (Γένος) – *clan, sept*, or enlarged, and partly fictitious, brotherhood, bound together by:

1) *Common religious ceremonies*, and *exclusive privilege of priesthood*, in honour of the *same god supposed to be the primitive ancestor, characterized by a special surname*;\
2) *Common burial place.* — { »καίτοι τίς ἔστιν ὅστις ἃν εἰς τὰ πατρῷα μνήματα τοὺς *μηδὲν ἐν γένει τιθέντας ἐάσαι.*« *Demosth. Eubulides.*\
3) *mutual rights of succession to property.*\
4) *reciprocal obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries.*\
5) *mutual right and obligation to intermarry in certain determinate cases, especially where there was an orphan daughter or heiress.*\
6) *Possession in some cases at least of common property*; an archon and treasurer of their own.

*Phratric union*, binding together several gentes, less intimate … doch auch mutual rights u. obligations of an analogous character; especially a *communion of particular sacred rites, and mutual privileges of prosecution in the event of a phrator being slain* … All the *phratries of the same tribe* enjoyed a certain *periodical communion of sacred rites under the presidency* of a magistrate called the *Phylo-Basileus or tribe-king* selected from the *Eupatrids*.“

Durch die *Grecian gens* guckt der *Wilde* (Iroquois z. B.) aber auch unverkennbar durch.

Sonst *eigenthümlich* to the *Grecian* gens:

7) *limitation of descent to male line*; 8) *prohibition of intermarriage in the gens ausser in case of heiresses*; 9) *Right of adopting strangers in the gens*; 10) *right of electing u. deposing its chiefs.*

*ad 7)* In unsrer eignen modernen Familie, those *descended from males* bear the *family name*, constitute *a gens*, obgleich in a *state of dispersion* u. *ohne bond of union* ausser den nearest in degree. Die *females* lose mit Heirath their family name, werden *mit their children transferred* to other gens. *Hermann* sagt: „Jedes Kind wurde *einregistrirt* in die Phratrie wie Geschlecht (Γένος) *seines Vaters*.“

*ad 8)* ⦗Interdiction of *intermarriage in gens* geht hervor schon aus der *Ausnahme*, for heiresses, wo dies erlaubt.⦘

*Wachsmuth*: „Die Jungfrau, die ihres Vater’s Haus verlässt, ist nicht länger *Theilnehmer am väterlichen Opferherd*, sondern *enters* the *religious communion ihres Mannes*, u. this gave sanctity to the marriage tie.“ *Hermann* sagt: „Jedes neu verheirathete Frauenzimmer, *herself a citizen*, was on this account *enrolled in the phratry of her husband*.“ *Sacra gentilicia* common in griech. u. röm. Gens. Scheint nicht, dass bei Griechen – wie bei Römern – the wife *forfeited her agnatic rights by marriage*; sie doubtless counted herself *of the gens* of her father.

*Rule*, die *intermarriage in gens* verbietet, dauert fort, selbst nach Gründung der monogamian Ehe ⦗die solche *limits* auf nearest degrees to limit sucht⦘, solang gens basis des social system bleibt. *Becker* sagt in *Charicles*: „*relationship* was, with trifling limitations, *no hinderance to marriage*, which could take place within all degrees of *ἀγχιστεία*, or *συγγένεια*, *though naturally not in the γένος itself*.“

*ad 9) Adoption* später practicirt, mindestens in families, doch mit public formalities u. limited to special cases.

*ad 10)* Das *right to elect and depose its chiefs* gehörte unbedingt den *Grecian gentes* in early period; each gens had its *ἀρχός*, the common name for a *chief*. Dass das office erblich *auf son in homeric period* nicht anzunehmen, considering the free spirit der Athenian gentes *down to Solon u. Cleisthenes*. Presumption stets *gegen hereditary right*, wo nicht *decisive evidence*, da der stärkste Widerspruch gegen die archaic rule.

Was abgeschmackt bei *Grote*, dass die Basis des social system der Greeks der οἶκος *„the house, hearth, or family“*. Er verlegt offenbar die *Roman family under the ironclad rule of a pater familias* in’s homerische *Zeitalter der griech. Familie*. Gens in origin älter als *monogamian* u. *syndyasmian families*, essentially contemporaneous mit *punaluan family*; aber gens nicht *founded upon either*. Jede *family, archaic or not*, ist halb *in*, halb *ausser* gens, weil *husband u. wife belong to different gentes*. ⦗aber *gens* entspringt nothwendig aus einer *Promiscuous group*; sobald *innerhalb dieser* schon *intermarriage zwischen Brüdern u. Schwestern* entfernt (stopped) zu werden beginnt, kann gens gepfropft werden auf die group, nicht vorher; *Voraussetzung der gens*, dass Brüder und Schwestern (own u. *collateral*) bereits von andern consaguinei geschieden sind. *Die gens* einmal da, bleibt sie *unit* des social system, während *die Familie grosse changes durchläuft*.⦘

Gens geht *ganz ein* in phratry, diese in *tribe*, diese in *nation*, aber *family* geht nie ganz ein in *gens*, sobald letztere einmal existirt; sie geht immer nur halb ein in *gens des Mannes* u. halb in *gens der Frau*.

Nicht nur *Grote* sondern *Niebuhr*, *Thirlwall*, *Maine*, *Mommsen* etc – alle von klassischer Schülergelehrsamkeit – nehmen selben Stand mit *Bezug auf monogamische Familie of patriarchal type als integer around which society integrated in the Grecian u. Roman systems*. *Family* konnte ebensowenig – selbst die monogamische – *natural basis of gentile society* bilden, wie heutzutage in bürgerlicher Gesellschaft *the family is not the unit of the political system*. Der Staat recognizes the *counties* woraus er zusammengesetzt, diese its *townships*, but the township takes *no note of the family*; so die *nation recognized its tribes*, the *tribes its phratries*, the *phratries its gentes*, but the gens took *no note of the family*.

Herrn Grote ferner zu bemerken, dass obgleich die Griechen ihre *gentes* aus der *Mythologie* herleiten, jene *älter* sind als die von ihnen selbst geschaffne *Mythology* mit ihren Göttern u. Halbgöttern.

In the organization of gentile society, the *gens is primary*, forming both the *basis* u. *unit des systems*; die *family* auch *primary u. älter als die gens*; *the consanguine u. punaluan families* having *pre-existed* in time; but it is not a member of the organic series.

*Grote sagt:* „*Primitive religious and social union* der attischen Bevölkerung – im Unterschied v. der *political union, die wahrscheinlich* (!) späterer introduction, *represented at first* durch die *trittyes u. naukraries*, u. *später die 10 Kleisthenean tribes, subdivided into trittyes u. demes*. In the former *personal relation* is the essential u. predominant characteristic, – *local relation* being subordinate; in the latter, *property and residence* become *the chief considerations* u. das *personal element* counts only as *measured along with these accompaniments*. … the *festival of Theoenia* (Attic) u. *Apaturia* (common to all the *Ionian race*) annually brought together the members of these phratries u. gentes for worship, festivity u. maintenance of special sympathies …

The *gentes* both at *Athens* u. *in other parts of Greece* bore a *patronymic* name, the stamp of their *believed common paternity* … *Asklepiadae* in many parts of Greece; *Aleuadae* in Thessaly; *Midylidae, Psalychidae, Belpsiadae, Euxenidae*, at *Aegina*; *Branchidae* at *Miletus*, *Nebridae* at *Kôs*, *Iamidae u. Klytiadae* at *Olympia*, *Akestoridae* at *Argos*, *Kinyradae* at *Cyprus*, *Penthilidae* at *Mitylene*, *Talthybiadae* at *Sparta* –, *Kodridae, Eumolpidae, Phytalidae, Lykomêdae, Butadae, Euneidae, Hesychidae, Brytiadae* etc in Attica. To each corresponded *a mythical ancestor, passing for the first father* as well *as the eponymous hero of the gens* – *Kodrus, Eumolpus, Butes, Phytalus, Hesychus etc* … In *Athen*, mindestens nach der Revolution des Kleisthenes, der *gentile name nicht employed*; a man described first by his own single name, dann by *name of his father* u. next by *that of the deme to which he belonged*, wie *Aeschines son of Atromêtus*, *a Kothôkid* … gens a *close corporation*, both as to property and to persons. Bis *Solon’s Zeit keine power of testamentary disposition*. Wenn er ohne Kinder starb, succeeded *his gennêtes* in sein Eigenthum, u. dies *selbst nach Solon*, *if he died intestate*. … If a man murdered, first *his nearest relations*, dann his *gennêtes u. phrators* beide allowed u. required to *prosecute the crime at law*; while *his fellow demots*, or inhabitants of the same deme, did not possess the like right of persecuting. *All that we hear of the most Ancient Athenian laws based upon the gentile and phratric divisions* which are treated throughout as *extensions of the family* (!?) … this *division is completely independent of any property qualification – rich men as well as poor being comprehended in the same gens* … *Different gentes unequal in dignity*, arising chiefly *from the religious ceremonies* of which each possessed the *hereditary and exclusive administration*, and which, being in some cases considered of *pre-eminent sanctity*, were therefore *nationalized*. Thus the *Eumolpidae and Kerykes*, who supplied the *hierophant* and *superintendent* of the mysteries of the Eleusinian Demeter – and the *Butadae*, who furnished the priestess of Athene Polias, as well as the priest of *Poseidon Erechtheus* in the Acropolis – seem to have been reverenced above all the other gentes.“

*Gens* existed in the *Aryan family* when the *Latin, Greek u. Sanskrit speaking tribes one people (gens, Γένος u. ganas)*; derived it from their *barbarous ancestors* u. more remotely from their *savage progenitors*. If the *Aryan family* became as *early separated as the Middle Period of Barbarism*, u. dies wahrscheinlich, *the gens must have been transmitted to them in its Archaic form* … *Cf. gens of the Iroquois*, in the *lower Status of Barbarism* mit *gens der Grecian in Upper Status*, schlagend *dieselbe Organization*, dort in its *archaic form*, hier in *its ultimate form*. The differences between them *forced upon the gens* by the exigencies of human progress.

Mit diesen *mutations in gens parallel mutations in the rule of inheritance* … When *Solon allowed the owner of property to dispose of it by will*, in case he had no children, *he made the first inroad upon the property rights of the gens*.

*Herr Grote*, nachdem er remarked that „ *Pollux* informs us distinctly that *the members of the same gens at Athens were not commonly related*“ erklärt den *Ursprung der Gens* als Schulgelehrter Philister so: „Gentilism is a tie by itself; distinct from the *family* ties, but *presupposing* their existence and extending them *by an artificial analogy, partly founded in religious belief, and partly on positive compact*, so as to comprehend strangers in blood. *All the members of one gens*, or even of one phratry, *believed themselves to be sprung* … *from the same divine or heroic ancestor* … Doubtless *Niebuhr* is right in supposing the *ancient Roman gentes were not real families, procreated from one common historical ancestor*. Still it is not less true … that the *idea of the gens* involved the *belief in a common first father*, divine or heroic – a *genealogy* … *fabulous*, but consecrated and accredited among the members of the gens itself; it served as one important bond of union between them … The *natural families* of course *changed from generation to generation*, some extending … others diminished, or *died out*; but the *gens* received no alterations, except through the procreation, extinction and subdivision of these component families. Accordingly the relations of the families mit den gentes in perpetual course of fluctuation, *and the gentile ancestorial genealogy*, adapted as it doubtless was to the early condition of the gens, became in progress of time partially obsolete and unsuitable. *We hear of this genealogy but rarely* … *only brought before the public in certain cases* preeminent and venerable. *But the humbler gentes had their common rites* (Sonderbar dies, Mr. Grote?), and common *superhuman* ancestor and genealogy, as well as the more celebrated: (how very strange this on the part of humbler gentes! Is it not, Mr. Grote?) the scheme and *ideal* (dear Sir, not *ideal*, but *carnal, germanice* fleischlich) *basis* was the same in all.“

*The system of consanguinity* pertaining to *gens* in its *archaic form* – u. die Griechen hatten diese once besessen like other mortals – *preserved* a *knowledge of the relationships of all the members of a gens to each other*. ⦗Lernten dies für sie entscheidend Wichtige durch Praxis v. Kindesbeinen⦘ *This fell into desuetude with the monogamic family.* The *gentile name* created a *pedigree* beside which *that of a family was insignificant*. It was *the function of this name* to preserve the fact of the common descent of those who bore it; but the *lineage of the gens so ancient* that its members could *not prove the actual relationship* between them, ausser in beschränkter Zahl von cases through recent common ancestors. Der *name itself evidence* of a common descent and conclusive, except as it was *liable* to interruption *through the adoption of strangers in blood* in the previous history der gens. Dahingegen das *practical denial aller relationship zwischen its members* à la *Pollux* u. *Niebuhr , changing the gens into a purely fictitious creation* würdig idealer i.e. stubenhockerischer Schriftgelehrter. ⦗Weil die *Verkettung der Geschlechter*, namentlich mit Anbruch der Monogamie, in die Ferne gerückt u. die *past reality* im *mythological Phantasiebild* reflectirt erscheint, hence schlossen u. schliessen Philister-Biedermänner, dass die *Phantasiegenealogie* wirkliche gentes schuf!⦘ Grosse Proportion v Gliedern der Gens konnten ihre Abstammung weit zurück nachweisen u. bei dem remainder *the gentile name they bore* sufficient evidence of common descent for practical purposes. *The Grecian gens meist small body*; 30 families to a gens, abgesehn v. den wives der Familienhäupter, would give *average of 120 persons by gens*.

In *gens* the religious activity der *Greeks* originated, expanded over the phratries, culminated in periodical festivals common to all. *(De Coulanges)* ⦗Das lumpige *religiöse* Element wird Hauptsache bei gens, im Mass wie *real cooperation* u. *common property* alle werden; der Weihrauchduft, der übrig bleibt.⦘

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## Pt. II) Ch. IX The Grecian Phratry, Tribe and Nation.

Die *griech. phratry*: its natural foundation in *bond of kin*, gentes die *subdivisions einer common gens* gebildet. Says *Grote*: „*All the contemporary members* of the phratry of Hekatäus had a common god for their ancestor *at the 16th degree*“; the gentes were *brother gentes* literally ⦗originally⦘ u. hence their organization – phratry. Die Existenz der letzteren erklärt sich schon *Dikaearchus* rationalistisch so: *the practice of certain gentes in supplying each other with wives, led to the phratric organization for* (!) *the performance of common religious rites*. A *fragment* dieses *Dikaearchus* preserved durch *Stephanus of Byzantium*. Er braucht *πάτρα* für *gens*, wie Pindar oft u. *Homer* manchmal. *Stephanus* berichtet so:

„*Patry is one of 3 forms of social union among Greeks*, according to *Dikaearchus*, which we call respectively *patry, phratry* and *tribe*. The *patry* comes into being when relationship, originally *solitary*, passes over into the *second stage* ⦗relation of parents with children and children with parents⦘, and derives its *eponym* from the oldest and chief member of the patry, as *Aicidas*, *Pelopidas*. But it came to be called *phatria* or *phratria when certain ones gave their daughters to be married into another patry*. For the woman who was given in marriage *participated no longer in the paternal sacred rites, but was enrolled in the patry of her husband*; so that for the union, formerly existing by *affection between sisters and brothers*, there was established *another union based on community of religious rites*, which they *denominated a phratry*; and so that again, while the *patry* took its rise in the way we have previously mentioned, from the *blood relation between parents and children, and children and parents*, the *phratry took its rise from relationship between brothers*. But *tribe* and *tribesmen* were so called *from the coalescence into communities and nations so called, for each of the coalescing bodies was a tribe*.“ *(Wachsmuth: „Hist. Antiquitäten der Griechen“)*

*Marriage out of the gens* here anerkannt als *custom*, u. wife enrolled in *the gens* (patry) rather than the *phratry* of her husband.

*Dikäarchus*, ein Schüler des *Aristoteles*, lebte zur Zeit wo *gens* existed chiefly as a *pedigree of individuals*, its powers having been transferred to new political powers. Intermarriages, mit common religious rites, konnten nicht gründen, wohl aber *cement* the *phratric union*. Griechen wussten v. ihrer eignen Geschichte nichts ausser bis in *Status of Upper Barbarism* hinein.

Sieh in *array of military forces* phratries u. tribes bei *Homer*. (Sieh oben!) Aus dem advice des *Nestor* an *Agamemnon* geht hervor, dass the organization of armies by *phratries* u. *tribes* had then *ceased to be common*. ⦗*Gens* v. vorn herein too *small a basis* for organization of an army.⦘ ⦗*Tacitus, De moribus Germaniae*, sagt v. den Germanen im Krieg, *caput 7*: *»nec fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit*, sed *familiae et propinquitates.«*⦘

*Obligation of blood revenge* – turned später in *duty of prosecuting the murderer before the legal tribunals* – rested primarily *upon the gens of the slain*, aber shared auch by phratry, u. *became a phratric obligation*. The extension der obligation v. gens zu phratry *implies a common lineage of all the gentes in a phratry*. – Unter den Athenern *überlebte phratric organization the overthrow of the gentes* as the basis of a system; retained, in der new polit. society, *some control over the registration of citizens, the enrollment of marriages* u. the *prosecution of the murderer of a phrator before the courts*.

*Greek gentes u. phratries* liessen *als legacy* to the new society they were destined to found: their *institutions, arts, inventions* u. *mythological (polytheistic) system*.

Wie an Spitze der gens *ἀρχός*, so an Spitze der *Phratry Phratriarch (φρᾱτριάρχος), presided at its meetings* u. *officiated in the solemnization of religious rites*. Sagt *Coulanges*: „The *phratry* had its assemblies and its tribunals, and could pass decrees. In it, as well as in the family, there was a god, a priesthood, a legal tribunal and a government.“ The *religious rites of the phratries* were an expansion of those of the gentes of which it was composed.

*A number of phratries* composed the *tribe*; the persons in each phratry, of same common lineage, *spoke the same dialect*. The *concentration of such Grecian tribes as had coalesced into a people*, in a small area, *tended to repress dialectical variations, which a subsequent written language* tended *still further to arrest*.

When die several phratries of a tribe united in the commemoration of their religious observances, so in ihrer quality *qua tribe*; as such under the presidency of a *phylo-basileus, the principal chief of the tribe*; he possessed *priestly functions*, always inherent in the *office of basileus*, u. übte a *criminal justice* aus in cases of murder; dagegen *absence of civil functions*; also *king* schlechter misnomer für *»basileus«*. Unter den Athenern der *tribe-basileus*, dann selber term for the *general military commander of the 4 tribes. Gentile institutions* essentially *democratical, monarchy incompatible with gentilism*. Every gens, phratry, tribe a *completely organized self-governing body*; wo *several tribes coalesced into a nation* the *resulting government* constituted in *harmony with* the principles *animating its constituent parts*.

*Tribes, coalesced* into a *nation*, wie die tribes der Athenians u. Spartans, simply a *more complex duplicate of a tribe*. There was no *name (social one)* for the *new organism* ⦗wo tribes took the same place in the nation as phratries in the tribe, gentes in the phratry⦘; *Aristoteles*, *Thucydides* u. andre »moderne« nennen die *governments der heroic period* – βασιλεία ; statt dessen sprang up *name for the people or nation*. So bei *Homer Athenians, Locrians, Aetolians* etc, aber auch v. *city* od. *country* they came from. So, *vor Lykurg* u. *Solon*, 4 stages of social organization: *gens, phratry, tribe u. nation*. So gentile Grecian society a *series of aggregates of persons*, with whom the government dealt through their *personal relations to* a *gens, phratry or tribe*.

Im *heroic age* bei *Athenian nation* 3 *co-ordinate departments or powers*: 1) the council of chiefs *(βουλή)*; 2) *ἀγορά*, assembly of the people; 3) *βασιλεύς*, general military commander.

1) *Council of chiefs* had *permanence as a feature* of *their social system*; its *powers ultimate and supreme*; wahrscheinlich auch hier composed of *the chiefs of gentes*; *selection* must have been made, da ihre *Anzahl* meist kleiner als die der gentes; *Council* auch *legislative body* representing the principal gentes; seine *importance* mag abgenommen haben mit wachsender Wichtigkeit des office of *βασιλεύς* u. the new offices created in their military u. municipal affairs with their increase in numbers u. wealth; *but it could not be overthrown without a radical change of institutions*. Hence every *office of the government* muss dem Council accountable geblieben sein for its *official acts*.

*Dionysius, 2, XII* sagt: »*Ἑλληνικὸν* δὲ ἄρα καὶ τοῦτο τὸ *ἔθος* ἦν. τοῖς γοῦν *βασιλεῦσιν*, ὅσοι τε πατρίους ἀρχὰς *παραλάβοιεν καὶ ὅσους ἡ πληθὺς αὐτὴ καταστήσαιτο ἡγεμόνας, βουλευτήριον ἦν ἐκ τῶν κρατίστων, ὡς Ὅμηρός τε καὶ οἱ παλαιότατοι τῶν ποιητῶν μαρτυροῦσι· καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς καθ’ ἡμᾶς χρόνοις αὐθάδεις καὶ μονογώμονες ἦσαν αἱ τῶν ἀρχαίων βασιλέων δυναστεῖαι*.«

In *Aeschylus* »Ἑπτὰ ἐπὶ Θήβας« (»Seven against Thebes«), *wo beide fallen*, *Eteokles* in command von *Thebai* u. sein Bruder *Polynices* als einer der 7 chiefs, die die Stadt belagern, kommt Herald des Raths u. theilt dem Chorus ⦗sonst *answered* Antigone u. Ismene⦘ mit das *Gutachten u. Schluss des Raths δοκοῦντα* (was Rath facienda esse censuit) u. *δόξαντα* (quae *decrevit*), *δήμου τῆς Καδμείας πόλεως προβούλοι*, der Stadtrath von Theben, zusammengesetzt aus den Chiefs seiner vornehmsten gentes. Die Stelle bei Aeschylus:

*v. 1007–10:* — »Δοκοῦντα καὶ δόξαντ’ ἀπαγγέλλειν με χρὴ Δήμου προβούλοις τῆσδε Καδμείας πόλεως· *Ἐτεοκλέα* μὲν τόνδ’ ἐπ’ εὐνοίᾳ χθονὸς *Θάπτειν ἔδοξε γῆς φίλαις κατασκαφαῖς*« etc.

2) *ἀγορά* established in der heroic period – an *assembly of the people*. ⦗In *Agora* gehn u. in *Krieg*; bei *Homer* heisst’s vom grollenden *Achilles: I, 490, 91 Il.:* »*Οὔτε ποτ’ εἰς ἀγορὴν πωλέσκετο κυδιάνειραν*, (den Mann ehrend) *οὔτε ποτ’ ἐς πόλεμον«.* »Er *ging weder in die ruhmvolle (den Mann ehrende) Agora*, Noch in die Schlacht«.⦘

Die *agora* – spätere Einrichtung als der Council of chiefs ⦗der früher wie bei Iroquois mit *ἀγορά* sofar verbunden, als die Volksleute (auch Weiber) dort *reden* konnten u. immer Masse anwesend⦘, hatte power to adopt or reject public measures submitted by the council. Die *agora* – bei Homer u. in Greek Tragedians – has same characteristics which it afterwards maintained in the ecclesia der Athenians u. der comitia curiata der Romans. Im heroic age *agora* a constant phenomenon among the Greek tribes. ⦗ditto *Germans* in Upper Status of Barbarism⦘ Jeder konnte sprechen in Agora; sie machte in ancient times meist ihre decision kund durch *show of hands*.

In den *»Schutzflehenden« des Aeschylus* — fragt *χορός*: — *»Δήμου κρατοῦσα χεὶρ ὅποι πληθύεται;«*\
Antwortet *Δαναός*: — »*Ἔδοξεν Ἀργείοισιν, οὐ διχοῤῥόπως*,\
*v. 610–623.* — *Πανδημίᾳ γὰρ χερσὶ δεξιωνύμοις Ἔφριξεν αἰθὴρ, τόνδε κραινόντων λόγον«* etc.

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3) *Der Basileus*. ⦗Die europäischen Gelehrten, meist geborne Fürstenbediente, machen aus dem *βασιλεύς* Monarch im modernen Sinn. Dagegen *Morgan*, Yankee Republican; er sagt sehr ironisch, aber true, vom öligen *Gladstone*: »Mr. Gladstone … presents to his readers ⦗in *›Juventus Mundi‹*⦘ the Grecian chiefs of the heroic age as kings and princes, with *the superadded quality of ›gentlemen‹*, selbst er muss aber zugeben (der „Gutstein“) „on the whole we seem to have *the custom or law* of *primogeniture* sufficiently, but not oversharply defined“.«]

⦗Mit Bezug auf die *Agora* bei Homer sagt *Schömann* I, 27: »Von *förmlicher Abstimmung* des Volks ist *niemals die Rede*: nur durch lautes Geschrei giebt die Versammlung ihren Beifall oder ihr Missfallen über das Vorgetragene zu erkennen, u. wenn es sich um eine Sache handelt, zu deren Ausführung die Mitwirkung des Volkes erforderlich ist, *so verräth uns Homer kein Mittel, wie dasselbe gegen seinen Willen dazu gezwungen werden könne*.«⦘

Frage: Ging das office of basileus durch *hereditary right* von Vater auf Sohn über? Im Lower *Status of Barbarism* das *office of chief hereditary in a gens*, d.h. vacancy, when occurring, *filled from the members of the gens*. When *descent in female line* – wie bei den Iroquois – an *own brother* meist elected to succeed the deceased chief; wenn in der *male line* – wie bei *Ojibwas u. Omahas* – *the oldest son*. In the *absence of objections to the person, such became the rule*; aber das *elective principle* remained. Also blosse *faktische Nachfolge* des *ältesten Sohns* od. *eines der Söhne* (wenn mehre) beweist also nicht *»hereditary right«*; because by usage he *was in the probable line of succession* by a free election from a constituency. Presumption daher für die *Grecians*, entsprechend ihren gentile institutions, either für *free election* od. a *confirmation of the office* by the people through their recognized organizations, wie bei Roman rex. In diesem Fall konnte der s.g. Nachfolger office nicht antreten ohne Election od. confirmation, u. die *power* (Seitens des Volks) to elect or confirm schloss ein *right to depose*.

Was die berühmte Stelle in *Ilias*, l. II, *v. 203–6* angeht (worauf auch *Grote* seine »royalistische« Anschauung gründet):

»*Οὐ μέν πως πάντες βασιλεύσομεν ἐνθάδ’ Ἀχαιοί· Οὐκ ἀγαθὸν πολυκοιρανίη· εἷς κοίρανος ἔστω*, *Εἷς βασιλεὺς, ᾧ ἔδωκε Κρόνου παῖς ἀγκυλομήτεω ⦗Σκῆπτρόν τ’ ἠδὲ θέμιστας, ἵνα σφίσιν ἐμβασιλεύῃ.⦘*«,

so *erstens zu bemerken*: Agamemnon – für den *Odysseus* in obiger Stelle spricht – erscheint in *Ilias* nur als der *principal warchief, commanding an army before a besieged city*. Der *Vers in brackets* not found in several Ms., z. B. nicht im commentary v. *Eustathius*. Ulysses hält hier keine Vorlesung über eine Regierungsform, königliche od. andre, sondern verlangt »Gehorsam« an chief-warrior im Kriegsdienst. Considering, dass die Griechen vor Troja *nur qua Heer* erscheinen, geht’s in der *Agora* demokratisch genug zu. *Achilles*, wenn er von »Geschenken«, i.e. Austheilung der Beute spricht, macht stets zum Vertheiler weder den Agamemnon, noch einen andern *βασιλεύς*, sondern *»die Söhne der Achäer«*, das Volk. Die Prädicate *»διογενεῖς«* od. *»διοτρεφεῖς«* beweisen auch nichts, da *jede gens* von einem Gott herstammt, die *tribe-chiefs gens* schon von »vornehmerem« Gott (hier Zeus); selbst die *persönlich Unfreien* – wie der *Sauhirt Eumäus u. Rinderhirt Philoitios* sind *δῖοι* u. *θεῖοι*, u. dies in *Odyssee*, also in viel späterer Zeit als die der *Ilias*; der Name *ἥρως* wird in selber *Odyssee* auch dem *Herold Mulios*, dem blinden Sänger *Demodokos* beigelegt; etc. *Κοίρανος*, was Odysseus v. Agamemnon neben *βασιλεύς* anwendet, heisst auch nur *Befehlshaber im Krieg* dort. *Βασιλεία*, angewandt v. den griech. Schriftstellern für das homerische Königthum (weil *generalship* his chief feature) mit βουλή u. *agora* ist – Sorte *militärischer Demokratie*.

Im *heroischen Zeitalter* lebten die Grecian tribes in walled cities; *Bevölkerungszahl* stieg durch *field agriculture, Manufacturindustrie, flocks u. herds*; new *offices* required u. *some separation of their functions; a new municipal system* was growing; *period* of *incessant military strife for the possession of the most desirable areas*; mit *increase of property* wuchs *the aristocratic element in society*, was *Hauptursache der disturbances in Athenian Society von Zeit des Theseus bis zu Solon u. Cleisthenes*.

Während dieser Periode u. bis zur *final abolition des βασιλεύς-office* einige Zeit *vor der 1sten Olympiade (776 B.C.) wurde office des βασιλεύς* more prominent u. powerful than das irgendeiner andern Person in ihrer früheren Erfahrung. *Functions of Priest u. Judge* attached to or inherent in the office; er scheint *ex officio* a *member of the council of chiefs*. Powers of general in Feld u. Garnison in der walled city, gab ihm Mittel ebenso Einfluss in *civil affairs* zu gewinnen; scheint aber nicht dass er *civil functions* besass. Auf Seite des βασιλεύς entwickelt sich nothwendig *tendency to usurp additional powers*, in beständigem Kampf mit dem *council of chiefs*, representative of the gentes. ⦗Hence endlich das office abgeschafft v. den Athenern.⦘

Unter den *Spartan tribes* früh *Einrichtung des Ephorats to limit power of βασιλεῖς*. ⦗Die *βουλή* blieb die supreme power, unterstützt durch *agora* im homer. Zeitalter⦘

*Thucydides sagt I, c. 13: »Δυνατωτέρας δὲ γενομένης τῆς Ἑλλάδος*, *καὶ τῶν χρημάτων τὴν κτῆσιν* ἔτι *μᾶλλον ἢ πρότερον ποιουμένης*, *τὰ πολλὰ τυραννίδες ἐν ταῖς πόλεσι καθίσταντο*, *τῶν προσόδων* (Einkünfte) *μειζόνων γιγνομένων·* (*πρότερον δὲ ἦσαν ἐπὶ ῥητοῖς γέρασι* (mit festgesetzten powers) *πατρικαὶ* (gentiles) *βασιλεῖαι*) *ναυτικά τε ἐξηρτύετο ἡ Ἑλλὰς*,*καὶ τῆς θαλάσσης* [*μᾶλλον*] *ἀντείχοντο.«*

*Aristoteles. Politics.* III, 14: *»βασιλείας* μὲν οὖν *εἴδη* (Arten) *ταῦτα τέτταρα* τὸν ἀριθμόν, *μία* μὲν *ἡ περὶ τοὺς ἡρωϊκοὺς χρόνους*· *αὕτη* δ’ ἦν *ἑκόντων* [μέν] (von Freien, over a free people), *ἐπὶ τισὶ* δὲ (in einigen aber) *ὡρισμένων· στρατηγὸς* γὰρ ἦν καὶ *δικαστὴς* ὁ *βασιλεὺς* καὶ *τῶν πρὸς [τοὺς] θεοὺς κύριος* (Hauptpriester). *Δευτέρα* δὲ ἡ *βαρβαρική* αὕτη δ’ ἐστὶν ἐκ γένους ἀρχὴ *δεσποτικὴ κατὰ νόμον. Τρίτη* (die 3te Form) δὲ ἣν αἰσυμνητείαν προσαγορεύουσιν· *αὕτη* δ’ [*ἐστὶν*] *αἱρετὴ τυραννίς (Wahltyrannei)*. *Τετάρτη* δ’ ἡ *Λακωνικὴ* [*τούτων*]· αὕτη δ’ ἐστὶν, ὡς εἰπεῖν ἁπλῶς, *στρατηγία* (generalship) κατὰ γένος *ἀϊδιος (erbliche generalship)* «. Aristoteles giebt dem *βασιλεύς keine civil functions*. ⦗Was die *richterliche function* angeht, muss sie wie bei den alten Germanen gedeutet werden, als Vorsteher des Gerichts, welches Versammlung ist; der Vorsitzer stellt die Frage, ist aber nicht der *Urtheilfinder*⦘

Die *Tyrannis* war usurpation, erhielt nie a permanent footing in Greece, galt stets ihnen als illegitim; seine *Tödtung* galt für verdienstvoll.

*Cleisthenes* rejected the *βασιλεύς* office; hielt *council of chiefs* bei in *elective senate* u. die *agora im people (ecclesia)*; *elective archon* folgte bei den Athenern dem *βασιλεύς*; dieser selbst, in *Upper Status of Barbarism*, was in dessen *Middle Status Teuctli (Great War Soldier verbunden mit functions of Priest)* in der *Aztec Confederacy*; dieser hinwiederum in *Lower Status of Barbarism* der *Great War Soldier* wie z. B. der *Iroquois Confederacy* u. dieser selbst entsprang aus dem *common war-chief des tribe*.

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## Pt. II. Ch. X. Institution of Grecian Political Society.

Aus der *failure der gentile institutions* to meet the now complicated wants of society, *gradually all civil powers entzogen den gentes, phratries u. tribes* u. diese *übertragen auf new constituencies*. Das eine system went gradually out, das andere gradually in, *the two for a part of the time existing side by side*.

*Stockaded village* usual home of the tribe in *Lower Status of Barbarism*; im *Middle Status joint-tenement houses* of *adobe bricks and stone*, in the nature of *fortresses*; im *Upper Status cities surrounded mit ring embankments*, schliesslich *mit walls of dressed stone*, mit *towers, parapets, gates*, designed to protect all alike and to be *defended by the common strength*. Cities of this grade imply the *existence* of *a stable u. developed field agriculture, possession* of *domestic animals in flocks and herds*, of *merchandise in masses* u. of *property in houses u. lands*. A necessity generally arose for *magistrates* u. *judges, military u. municipal officers* of *different* grades, with a *mode of raising and supporting military levies* which would require *public revenues*. Dies alles machte dem *»council of chiefs«* das Regieren schwer. – Die *Militairgewalt*, erst devolved upon *βασιλεύς* jezt auf *generals* u. *captains* under greater restrictions; *judicial power* jezt bei Athenians exercised durch *archons u. dicasts*; die *magisterial powers* devolved upon *municipal magistrates*. Nach u. nach *several powers by differentiation taken von der sum of powers des original council of chiefs*, soweit sie vom Volk auf letzteren übergegangen waren.

Diese Zeit *des Uebergangs* erscheint bei *Thucydides* (lib. I, 2–13) u. other writers als *Zeit fortwährender disorders* von conflict of authority u. abuse of powers not yet well defined u. als failure des old systems of government; auch Bedürfniss v. *written law* für blose *usages u. customs* dadurch nöthig geworden. Diese transition dauerte centuries.

Dem *Theseus* v. den Athenern first attempt to *subvert the gentile organization* zugeschrieben; man muss ihn betrachten als *Namen für eine Periode od. Series of events*.

⦗Die *Bevölkerung v. Attica (Böckh)* in seiner blühenden Zeit about ½ Million; davon mehr als ⅔, – nämlich *365,000 Sklaven*, ausserdem etwa *45,000* angesiedelte Fremde, bleibt für die *freie bürgerliche Bevölkerung – 90,000!*⦘

⦗Nach Schömann: *Attika in mehre kleine Fürstenthümer* getheilt; die Alten (*Strabo l. IX, Plutarch: Theseus* c. 24, 32, 36) *nennen 12 Staaten*; in manchem dieser 12 nicht eine, sondern mehrere *Stadt u. Städtchen*. Die Sage lässt den *Theseus* Land u. Volk unter der *Regierung eines einzigen Fürsten* vereinen, *Athen zum Sitz der Centralgewalt* machen, den *Theilregierungen* Ende machen.⦘

*Theseus* angeblich *Basileus v. Athen* in der *2. Hälfte des 13 Jhdts B.C.*

Vor Theseus (sieh *Schoemann*) lebte Attic Volk in *cities* ⦗12 angegeben nach Schömann, als ebensoviel independent *Wohnsitze* u. Territorien der *12 phratries*⦘, *bildeten* independent tribes, jeder mit eignem *Territorium* wo the people localized, eignen *council houses* u. *prytaneums*, aber confederated for mutual protection u. *elected Basileus* als general *commander of their common forces*. Aber (sieh *Thucydides*, u. ähnlich bei *Plutarch*), sobald Theseus *Basileus* wurde, überredete er sie to *break up the council-houses* u. magistracies ihrer verschiednen Städte, u. come into relation with *Athens*, mit einem *council-house* (βουλευτήριος) u. einem *πρυτανεῖον*. ⦗Letzteres ein *öffentliches Gebäude*, worin das *heilige Feuer* unterhalten wurde, u. die *Prytanen* od. Vorsitzenden des Senats wohnten.⦘ So die 4 Tribes brought unter Theseus to *coalesce into one people*. ⦗Sagt *Plutarch* in *„Theseus“ c. 24*: »Die *Bewohner Atticas* wohnten bisher zerstreut u. konnten nur mit Mühe für *gemeinsame Angelegenheiten zusammengebracht werden* (dies zeigt, dass sie *confederirt* waren, bevor sie coalesced), ja bisweilen waren sie in *Streit u. Fehden mit* einander gerathen. Theseus vereinigte nun alle in einer Stadt u. bildete aus ihnen eine einzige Gemeine eines einzigen Staats. Zu diesem Zweck reiste er bei den einzelnen *Gemeinen u. Geschlechtern* umher, u. suchte ihre Einstimmung zu erhalten etc. Den Mächtigen versprach er Aufhebung *der kgl. Gewalt* etc« u. *c. 25*: »Um die Stadt noch mehr zu vergrössern, rief er Jederman unter der Zusicherung gleicher Rechte hinzu, u. er liess dabei, wie man sagt, den bekannten *Heroldsruf: ›Hieher kommt all’ ihr Völker!‹* verkünden; denn er wollte in Athen einen *allgemeinen Völkerverein* (lies *Verein der Attischen tribes*) stiften. Damit aber die herbeigeströmte gemischte Menge ⦗*Phantasie des Plutarch*, gab damals keine solche »Mengen«⦘ nicht Unordnung u. Verwirrung in den Freistaat brächte, *theilte er das Volk zuerst* in *Edle, Landbauern* u. *Handwerker*. Den *Edlen* übertrug er die Aufsicht über die religiösen Angelegenheiten, u. das *Recht, öffentliche Aemter zu besetzen* (?), er ernannte sie zu Lehrern der Gesetze, zu Auslegern der göttlichen u. menschlichen Rechte, stellte sie aber den übrigen Bürgern gleich, indem die *Edlen* zwar durch Ansehen, die *Landbauern* aber durch Nützlichkeit u. die *Handwerker* durch Menge den Vorzug zu haben schienen. Dass er *zuerst* wie *Aristoteles* sagt, *„sich zum Volk hinneigte“* u. die Alleinherrschaft aufgab, scheint auch *Homer zu bezeugen, welcher im Schiffsverzeichniss* (2t Buch der Ilias) die *Athener eine Gemeine, Demos*, nennt.«⦘

Theseus theilte Volk in *3 classes, irrespective of gentes, Eupatridae* (well-born), *Geomori* (husbandmen) u. *»Demiurgi«* (artisans). Die principal offices assigned to first class, both in the *civil administration* u. *priesthood*. Diese *classification* nicht nur *recognition of property* u. *aristocratic element* im government der society, sondern *direct movement gegen die governing power der gentes*. Intention offenbar *to unite the chiefs of the gentes mit ihren Familien* u. die *men of wealth in the several gentes in a class by themselves*, with the right to hold the principal offices in which the powers of society were lodged. Die *separation des remainder in 2 grosse classes* wieder Verletzung der gentes. Aber gelang nicht. Die jetzt s.g. *Eupatrides* waren wahrscheinlich die men der gentes vorher called into office. Dies scheme brach down, weil es in fact *no transfer of power* von gentes, phratries u. tribes zu den classes u. weil such classes inferior den gentes as a basis of a system.

⦗Die Aeusserung v. Plutarch, dass »die *Niedrigen u. Armen bereitwillig der Aufforderung des Theseus folgten*« u. der von ihm citirte Ausspruch des *Aristoteles*, dass Theseus *»sich zum Volk hinneigte«* scheinen aber trotz Morgan darauf hinzuweisen, dass die *chiefs der gentes* etc durch Reichthum etc bereits in *Interessenconflict* mit der *Masse der gentes* gerathen, was unvermeidlich bei *Privateigenthum* in *Häusern, lands, Heerden*, verbunden mit *monogamischen Familien*.⦘

*Vor 776 B.C.* (erste Olympiade) *Amt des Basileus* in Athen *abgeschafft*, an dessen Stelle *archonship*, wie es scheint *erblich in gens*, die ersten 12 archons genannt *Medontidae*, von *Medon*, angeblichem Sohn des *Kodrus*, des letzten Basileus. (Nach *Morgan lebenslänglich* die archonship, hereditary in gens, also nicht *hereditary* im modernen Sinn.)

*711 B.C. Archonship* beschränkt auf *10 Jahre*, bestowed by free election auf die würdigst gehaltne Person; hier *Anfang der historischen Periode*, mit *election to highest office in the gift of the people*.

*683 B.C. Office of archon* made *elective annually, their number increased to nine*, blieb so bis Ende der athen. Demokratie;

1) *Archon Eponymus*, von seinem Namen die *designation des Jahrs* was derived; er determined *all disputes relative to the family, gentile u. phratric relations*; was legal protector of orphans u. widows.

2) *Archon Basileus*; had competence in complaints respecting *offences against the religious sentiments and homicide*.

3) *Archon Polemarch* (in times *prior to Kleisthenes*) *leader of military force u. judge in disputes between citizens* u. *non-citizens*.

4) Die *6 andern Archonten* hiessen *Thesmothetae*.

Erst war der attische *archon* chief of gens u. his office hereditary in gens; when descent changed v. *female to male line* the *sons of the deceased chief* in the lines of the election; Athener gaben später dann den alten Titel des chief of gens – *Archon* – dem highest magistrate, machten office *elective*, irrespective of gens etc., erst lebenslänglich, dann 10, dann 1 Jahr.

*624 B.C. Draco* had framed a code of laws for the Athenians; shows that *usages u. customs were to be superseded* by *written laws*. Athenians were in the stage wo *lawgivers appear* and legislation is in a scheme or in gross, under the sanction of a personal name.

*594 B.C. Solon comes into Archonship.* – In seiner Zeit had schon come in existence der *Areopagus*, bestehend aus den *Ex-archons* mit *power to try criminals* u. *censorship over morals*, zugleich mit Anzahl *neuer offices* in *military, naval u. administrative services*. – Wichtigste event: Errichtung der ναυκραρίαι *(Naukraries), 12 in jedem tribe*, 48 in all: jede Naukrarie *a local circumscription of householders*, aus der *levies drawn into military u. naval service* u. *from which taxes* wahrscheinlich *collected*. Die naucrary was the *incipient deme* or *township*. Nach *Böckh* bestand sie *schon vor Solon’s Zeit*, da die *presiding officers der naucraries (πρυτάνεις τῶν ναυκράρων)* schon mentioned früher. *Aristoteles* schreibt sie dem *Solon* zu, weil dieser sie in seine Constitution aufnahm. – *12 naucraries* bildeten a τριττύς (trittys) a *larger territorial circumscription*, nicht necessarily contiguous; bildete germ of the »county« (?). *Council of chiefs* (βουλή) dauerte fort, aber jetzt daneben *agora*, der *Court des Areopagus* u. die 9 archons. It doubtless had the general administration der finances.

Als *Solon* zur archonship came, social state bösartig, in *Folge des* struggle for the *possession of property. Ein Theil der Athener in Sklaverei gefallen, durch Verschuldung*, die Person des Schuldners being liable to enslavement in default of payment; andre had *mortgaged their lands* u. were unable to remove the encumbrances. Ausser *body von Gesetzen*, wovon einige neu, but *corrective of the principal financial difficulties*, erneuerte *Solon* Project des Theseus die Gesellschaft in *classes* zu theilen, diesmal aber nicht nach *callings*, sondern *nach amount of their property*; er *theilte das Volk in 4 classes*, nach measure of wealth.

⦗Nach *Plutarch „Solon“ c. 18: Iste Classe: Grundertrag = 500 Mass trockner u. flüssiger Früchte*. (Gewöhnliches *Mass des Getreides* ein *Medimnus* (etwas über *15/16 des Berliner Scheffels*), der Flüssigkeiten ein *Metretes* (etwas mehr als 33 Berliner Quart).) Wer dazu gehörte *500 hert-Scheffler*. *IIte Classe:* die *300* Mass erndteten; hiessen zur *Ritterschaft Steuernde. IIIte Klasse:* die 200 Mass v. einer der beiden Früchte; *Zweispänner* (*ζευγῖται*), wohl vom *Gespann Maulthiere*, das sie hielten. (Dies geschah nachdem er *Schätzung der Bürger* verordnet.) *Alle andern* die *IVte Klasse der Fröhner* (Theten). Erhielt den 3 ersten Klassen, i.e. den *Vermögenden*, den Zugang »*zu allen obrigkeitlichen Aemtern*«*; Theten* (4t Kl.) hatten kein Amt zu verwalten, hatten aber an der *Regierung Theil* als *Mitglieder der Volksversammlungen u. Gerichtshöfe*. (Dadurch bekamen sie entscheidende Macht um so mehr »da *Solon* auch bei solchen Sachen, worüber die Obrigkeiten zu erkennen hatten, eine Berufung an das Volksgericht erlaubte.«)⦘

Gentes weakened hierdurch, u. ihre decadence eingeleitet. Aber sofern *classes composed of persons* substituted for *gentes composed of persons*, government still founded upon persons u. upon relations purely personal. Die *erste Classe* war allein eligible to the *high offices*, 2te zum *Reiterdienst*, 3te *zur Infantrie*, 4te zu leicht *bewaffneten soldiers*; letzte die Majorität; they *paid no taxes*, aber in der *popular assembly* hatten sie vote bei *Wahl aller Magistrate u. Officiere*, mit power to bring them to an account; could adopt or reject all public measures. *Alle freemen, wenn auch nicht connected with a gens u. tribe*, now brought, to a certain extent, *into the government, became citizens* u. *members of the public assembly*.

Die Iste (vornehmste Klasse) nicht liable to military service.

⦗Neben dem Areopag ein*Rath* (Plutarch lässt ihn falsch v. Solon gründen, er nahm nur die alte *βουλή* in seine Constitution auf, worin er aus *jedem der 4 tribes 100 Männer* wählen liess, *Vorberather des Volks*, so dass nichts ohne ihre *vorherige* Prüfung *an die Gemeine gelange*).⦘

Das *territorial element* was partially incorporated durch die *naucraries*, wo wahrscheinlich was an *enrollment of citizens u. of their property to form a basis for military levies u. taxation*. – Die *gentes, phratries, tribes blieben* in *full vitality*, though mit diminished powers – a transitional condition.

Von der *disturbed condition der Grecian tribes* u. den unavoidable movements des people in der *traditionary time vor Solon*, viele Persons transferred themselves v. one nation to another, lost so connection mit ihrer eignen gens ohne Verbindung mit einer andern zu gewinnen; dies wiederholt von Zeit zu Zeit, durch *personal adventure, spirit of trade, exigencies of warfare*, bis *considerable number with their posterity in every tribe unconnected with any gens*. All such persons without the pale of government. Says *Grote*: „The phratries and gentes *probably never at any time included the whole population of the country – and the population not included tended to become larger and larger in the times anterior to Kleisthenes*, wie nach ihm.“ Schon zur *Zeit des Lykurg* bedeutende *immigration nach Griechenland von den Inseln des Mittelmeers* u. den *Ionischen Städten seiner östlichen Küste*; wenn sie mit families kamen, *brachten sie a fragment of a new gens* mit sich; *blieben aber aliens unless the gens admitted into a tribe*, was wahrscheinlich häufig geschah; *explains the unusual number of gentes in Greece*. The poorer class would *not* be admitted either as *a gens* in einen tribe od. *adopted* in eine gens eines tribes. Zur Zeit des *Theseus* schon, aber mehr *speciell in der des Solon Zahl der unattached class* – exclusive of slaves – had become large; diese class of persons a *growing element of dangerous discontent*. Wurden durch Theseus u. *Solon* admitted *to citizienship through the classes*, aber blieben excluded von den verharrenden *gentes u. phratries*. In den *Council* konnten nur kommen 400, je aus einem der 4 tribes (den new *probouleutic or pre-considering senate*); selbe conditions nach *old custom of eligibility für die 9 Archonten*, also auch *für Areopag*. ⦗die *tribes* bestanden nur of *gentes* u. *phratries*; wer also ausser diesen, *ausser tribe*⦘ Also nur in *public assembly* (ecclesia) konnte ein *Athenian, [der] nicht ein member jener tribes* Zulass erhalten, aber eben dadurch war er *citizen*, nahm Theil an Wahl der Archonten, nahm Theil in der jährlichen decision ihrer *accountability*, konnte *claim redress for wrong von den archons in his own person*, während ein *alien* dies nur konnte durch intervention of an avouching citizen or *Prostatês*. **Alle persons**, whatever *their grade or fortune*, befanden sich *politisch* auf level with der *4ten Klasse der thetes*. Zugleich tended the *policy* of *Solon* to *invite industrious settlers from other parts of Greece to Athens*. Dies *one* of *the reasons of the failure of gentile organization*. ⦗Diese settlers *alle Griechen*; mit *written language* hatte der *dialectic Unterschied* nicht mehr Macht zur *Barrière v. Scheidung* (Unverständlichkeit) zu werden; andrerseits *migration, Seefahrt u.* alle mit *commerce verbundne Personenbewegung* – nicht fassbar in *auf gens gegründete society*.⦘

Andrerseits: *Schwierigkeit gens, phratry u. tribe* local zusammenzuhalten. Früher hatte die *gens its lands in common, the phratries certain lands in common for religious purposes* u. wahrscheinlich auch die *tribes other lands in common*. Wenn sie sich established in town or country, *settled sie neben einander* by gentes, phratries, tribes, *gemäss ihrer social organization*. Jede *gens* in *the main by itself*, nicht alle ihre Glieder, denn 2 gentes representirt in jeder Familie, but the *body who propagated the gens*. The gentes derselben Phratry suchten local zusammenzubleiben, u. so die several phratries einer tribe. Aber zur *Zeit des Solon lands u. houses owned by individuals* in severalty, mit **power of alienation of lands**, but *not of houses*, **out of the gens**. So immer schwieriger to keep the members of a gens *locally* zusammen, wegen der *shifting relations* of *persons to land* u. von der *creation of new property by its members in other localities*. The unity of their social system was becoming unstable in place u. in character. ⦗*Abgesehn* v. *locality*: Die Eigenthumsdifferenz in selber gens hatte Einheit ihrer Interessen in *Antagonismus* ihrer members verwandelt; ausserdem war neben Land u. Vieh *Geldcapital* entscheidend wichtig geworden, auch die *Entwicklung der Sklaverei*!⦘

Nur die *unsettled condition u. incessant warfare der tribes* (Attic), from *their settlement in Attica bis zur Zeit des Solon* hatten die alte *gentile Organization* so long aufrecht erhalten können. – *The township mit its fixed property u. its inhabitants* for *the time being yielded the element of permanence now wanting in the gens*.

*Zur Zeit des Solon* Athenians already *a civilized people*, had been so for 2 centuries: *bedeutend development* of *useful arts, commerce at sea* became a national interest, advancement of agriculture u. manufacture, commencement of *written composition in verse*; aber ihre *institutions of government still gentile*, of the type of the *Later Period of Barbarism*; beinah ein *Jahrhundert* nach Solon full of disorders.

*509. B.C. Kleisthenes’ constitution*, (Kern derselben lag in der *naucrary*) dauerte bis zu *Verlust der Unabhängigkeit Athens*. Theilte *Attica* in *100 demes* or *townships (wards)*, jedes *umschrieben by metes u. bounds*, u. *distinguished by a name*. Jeder citizen hatte sich selbst *einzuregistriren u. to cause an enrollment of his property in the deme wo er resided*. Dies enrollment evidence u. foundation of his civil privileges. *The deme displaced the naucrary*; its inhabitants had *powers of local self-government*. Diese *demotae* wählten einen *δήμαρχος* who had the *custody of the public register*, also the *power to convene the demotae for the election of magistrates and judges*, for *revising the registry of the citizens*, u. *enrolling such as became of age during the year*. Sie elected *a treasurer* u. provided for *the assessment* and *collection of taxes* u. for *furnishing the quota of troops* required from the deme für state service. They also *elected* 30 *dicasts or judges*, trying all causes arising in the deme *below a certain sum*; ausserdem had deme its *own temple, religious worship* u. *own priest*, der also elected by the deme. All *registered citizens* free u. equal *except equal eligibility to higher offices*.

*Second member der organic territorial series: 10 demes, united in a larger geographical district*, was called a *local tribe* – *φῦλον τοπικόν*. (So wurde die *römische tribus* – ursprünglich ⅓ of the people composed of 3 tribes – verwandelt aus *numerical quality* in a *local designation*.) Each district named after an *Attic hero*; einige der 10 *demes* waren detached *(nicht locally contiguous)* wahrscheinlich in consequence of *the local separation* of *portions des original consanguine tribe* who desired to have their deme incorporated in the district of their immediate kinsmen. ⦗Morgan nennt die topischen Phylen *counties*, *Schoemann* aber nennt die Unterabtheilungen der *topischen Phylen*, auf Wohnsitze u. Theile der *Stadt u. Landschaft* gegründet, *Gaue* (δῆμοι) oder *Ortschaften (κῶμαι)*. Er sagt von *Kleisthenes*: Er theilte das gesammte Land in *100 Verwaltungsbezirke*, hiessen δῆμοι u. die einzelnen Demen wurden theils nach den *kleinen Städten od. Flecken*, theils nach ausgezeichneten *Geschlechtern* benannt; die nach Geschlechtern benannten Demen vorzugsweis in dem Theil des Landes, der der Phyle der *Geleonten zugewiesen* (*Hauptstadt Athen* u. ihre nächste Umgebung, wo also die meisten u. bedeutendsten Adelsfamilien lebten, wo ihre Güter gelegen). Lang vor Klisthenes gab es Bezirke, Städte u. Flecke, die sich Demen nannten. *Zahl der Demen* stieg zuletzt auf 174; doch erinnerte an die ursprüngliche Zahl die *100 Heroen*, die Eponymen der 100 Demen. Die Phylen Verbände von 10 Demen.⦘

Jede *Phyle* od. *District* [named] nach an Attic Hero. Die Einwohner wählten einen *φύλαρχος*, der die *Cavallerie* commandirte, *ταξίαρχος* commandirte foot-soldiers u. *στρατηγός* commandirte both; jeder District *5 triremes* zu liefern, wählten wahrscheinlich as many *τρῐήραρχος* to command them. *Cleisthenes increased Senate to 500*, assigned 50 to *each district*; elected by its inhabitants. *(Attica kaum 40 □ miles gross.)*

*Third u. last member der territorial series* der *Athenische Staat*, aus 10 local tribes bestehend, represented by Senate, ecclesia, court of Areopagus, archons, judges, elected military u. naval commanders.

Um Staatssbürger zu sein, musste man Mitglied eines Deme sein; um in Senat gewählt zu werden od. zum Commando einer Division v. army or navy, durch a topic phyle gewählt werden. The relations to gens or phratry ceased to govern the duties of an Athenian as a citizen. The *coalescence of the people into bodies politic in territorial areas now complete*.

Also *deme, phyle, u. Staat* an Stelle von *Gens, phratry, tribe* etc. Sie blieben (letztre) jedoch for centuries as a *pedigree and lineage* u. *fountains of religious life*.

No *executive officer existed under the system*. The *president of the Senate*, elected by lot for a single day, *presided over the popular assembly* ⦗konnte during the year nicht zur selben Würde wiedergewählt werden⦘ and held the keys of the citadel and the treasury.

*Sparta* retained the office of Basileus in period of civilization; a *dual generalship*, hereditary in a particular family; *the powers of government* co-ordinated between the *Gerousia* or *Council, popular assembly, 5 Ephors* (elected annually, die Ephors mit powers analogous den Roman tribunes). Die Basileis *commanded the army* and als *chief priests* offered the sacrifices to the gods.

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⦗Mit Bezug auf die *4 tribes* des attischen Volks: 1) *Geleontes*; 2) *Hopletes* (*ὁπλίτης* schwerbewaffneter Infanterist, Soldat mit Panzer u. Schild, der den ganzen Körper deckt. *ὅπλον Zeug, Werkzeug, Geräth*, bes. zur Ausrüstung der Soldaten: *Waffe*, ferner: der grosse Schild u. Panzer der Schwerbewaffneten; heisst auch *männliches Glied*; *ὅπλομαι = ὁπλίζομαι* u. *ὁπλίζω zubereiten*, in Stand setzen v. Speisen u. Getränken; sieh *Homer*: *ausrüsten* von *Schiff (Odyssee), waffnen etc*) ;

3) *Aegikoreis , Ziegenhirte* von αἴξ (gen. αἰγός *Ziege*, *von ἀίσσω sich schnell bewegen*) u. *κορέννυμι* = (*Αἰγικορεῖς*, *αἰγικορεύς* der Ziegenhirt) *jonisch = κορέω* sättigen, satt machen;

4) *Argadeis*, *ἐργάδεις = ἐργάται* (*Plutarch*) *ἐργάτης* Arbeiter, *Feldarbeiter*, Taglöhner. *ἐργάω* u. medium = *ἐργάζομαι* (*ἔργον* Werk, That) ich *arbeite*, bin thätig, *bes. treibe Ackerbau*.

Nach *Schömann*: *Hopletes Phyle*, die hellenischen Einwandrer, die einst unter Xuthus für die Attiker gegen die *euböischen Chalkodontiden* gestritten u. dafür die *Tetrapolis* auf der nach *Euböa* schauenden Küste u. beträchtlichen Theil des angrenzenden Landes zum Wohnsitz erhielten; – das *benachbarte Hochland* mit *Brilessos* u. *Parnes bis zum Kithäron: der Phyle der Aegikoreis: Sitz*, weil hier die Beschaffenheit des Landes *Viehzucht* zur Hauptbeschäftigung machte, in diesem Bezirk also *Ziegenhirten* die zahlreichsten.

*Argadeis Phyle:* auf dem *vom Brilessos* nach West u. Süd sich hinstreckenden Theil des Landes, wo die *3 grossen Ebnen* liegen, die *thriasische*, das *Pedion od. die Pedias* u. die *Mesogäa*. (Auch die Phyle der *Geleontes* hatte hier ihren Sitz. Der Hauptsitz des Adels *Athen* (*»εὐπατρίδαι οἱ αὐτὸ τὸ ἄστυ οἰκοῦντες«)*. Was Schoemann weiter sagt: dass »Hauptstadt u. nächste Umgebung« bekamen *daher* den *Namen Geleontes*; er hiess der *Geleontenbezirk*, und alle, die in diesem Bezirk wohnten, ob *Adliche od. Unadliche*, wurden der *Phyle der Geleonten* zugezählt, – so zeigt dies, welchen *Begriff* dieser Schulmeister von der Natur einer *Phyle* od. *tribe* hat.

Als *nach Sturz der Pisistratiden* der *Adel unter Isagoras eine Zeitlang den Sieg gewann*, das Volk in Gefahr, seine Freiheit zu verlieren, wenn Klisthenes nicht die *Adelspartei besiegt*. (Darauf bezieht sich *Herod. V 69.* »*τὸν δῆμον πρότερον* (vor Klist. unter Isagoras) *ἀπωσμένον πάντων*«)

*Kleisthenes* vermehrte erst die *Zahl des Volks* durch *Einbürgerung vieler in Attica ansässiger Nichtbürger od. Metöken*, wozu auch die *Freigelassenen gehörten*. (*Arist. Polit.* III, 1, 10.) Seine Abschaffung der Eintheilung in 4 *Geschlechtsphylen*, tribes, theils *nöthig*, weil in die *alte Eintheilung* die *Neuaufgenommenen nicht einrangirt werden konnten*, andrerseit aber verlor dadurch *Adel den Einfluss, den er bisher* (als chiefs of gentes) *in den ländlichen Districten* geübt. *Klisthenes* besetzte mehre u. zwar bedeutende Aemter, namentlich das *Collegium der 9 Archonten* statt wie bisher durch *Volkswahl* – durch *Loos*, aber diese Losung fand nur unter *Bewerbern statt aus den 3 oberen* u. für *Archonten nur aus der ersten* Klasse statt.

Kurz *nach den Reformen des Kleisthenes Perserkriege*, worin sich die Athener aller Klassen ruhmvoll bewährt. *Aristides* setzte nun durch, dass fortan die Schranken aufgehoben, wodurch die ärmeren (rather *niedrigeren*) *Bürger von den Staatsämtern ausgeschlossen*. *Plutarch, Aristides c. 22*: »*γράφει ψήφισμα, κοίινὴν εἶναι τὴν πολιτείαν καὶ τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἐξ Ἀθηναίων πάντων αἱρεῖσθαι.*« (Dies letztere Wort, nach Schömann, hier nicht *wählen*, sondern *losen*, so auch bei *Pausanias* I, 15, 4.) Doch blieben gewisse Aemter nur den Pentakosiomedimnen, den *500 Schefflern*, zugänglich. In der *4ten Klasse* auch *Wohlhabende*, die nur nicht *so viel Landbesitz* hatten als *der Census der 3 oberen Klassen* erforderte. Und diese *Art des Wohlstands seit Solon’s Zeit bedeutend gewachsen*: *Handel u. Gewerb* in rascher Entwicklung, gewannen nicht weniger Bedeutung als Landbau. Ausserdem hatte Krieg – *Attika wiederholt v. den Perserschaaren verheert* – namentlich *viele Landbesitzer ruinirt*, manche verarmt, unfähig ihre niedergebrannten Höfe wieder aufzubauen, *mussten sich ihres Besitzthums entäussern*, waren so in *4te Klasse gesunken*; auch diesen die Aenderung des Aristides zu gut kommend. On the whole aber hatte sein Gesetz die Wirkung die *einseitige Bevorzugung der ländlichen Grundbesitzer aufzuheben u. Gewerbtreibenden u. Kapitalisten ohne Landbesitz Zutrtitt zu den Aemtern zu gewähren*.

*Pericles*: Solange *nichts bezahlt* für den *Besuch der Volkversammlungen* hielten die *Aermeren* sich meist gern davon fern. Von Pericles an die Zahlung; erst – unter ihm – für *Besuch in Volksversammlung u. Funktion in Gerichten nur ein Obol*, spätere Demagogen erhöhten sie aufs 3fache. Die *wohlhabenden Klassen* waren für *Frieden*, die *Aermeren* gingen leichter auf die kriegerische Politik des Perikles ein.

*Ephialtes* – selber Richtung wie Perikles – entzog dem *Areopag* sein bisheriges *Oberaufsichtsrecht über die ganze Staatsverwaltung*, liess ihm nur die *Blutgerichtsbarkeit*. Der Areopag gehörte grössten Theils zur *ruheliebenden u. conservativen Partei*; statt seiner eingesetzt zur Beaufsichtigung u. *Controlle des Raths, der Volksversammlung u. der Magistrate eine neue Behörde* – Collegium von *7 Nomophylakes* od. *Gesetzwächtern*; das Volk wurde mit dem Areopag einer aristokratischen Zuchtbevormundungsbehörde entledigt.⦘

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## Pt. II. Ch. XI. The Roman Gens.

Bei *Einwandrung in Italien v. Latinern, Sabellern, Sabellern* u. *Umbriern*, wahrscheinlich als one people, sie in *Besitz of domestic animals* u. wahrscheinlich bekannt mit *cultur v. cereals u. plants*; jedenfalls well *advanced in Middle Status of barbarism*, u. als sie historisch erscheinen in *Upper Status*, an Schwelle von Civilization.

Nach *Mommsen*: „*barley, wheat, and spelt* gefunden *wild growing an der rechten Bank des Euphrat’s, northwest von Anah*. Das growth v. barley u. wheat in wild state in *Mesopotamien* schon erwähnt durch den *babylonischen historian Berosus*.“ *Fick* in: *„Primitive Unity of Indo-European Languages“, Göttingen, 1873*, sagt: „*Pasturage foundation … but very slight beginnings of agriculture.* Sie waren bekannt *mit a few grains, deren Cultivation carried on incidentally in order to gain a supply of milk and flesh*. Die material existence des people rested nicht on agriculture. *Wenige primitive words beziehn sich auf Agricultur*. Diese Words: *yava*, wild fruit; *varka* (hoe) (od. plow), *rava* (sickle); *pio (pinsere) bake* u. *mak, Greek* μάσσω which indicates *threshing out* u. *grinding of grain*.“

Zur Zeit des *Romulus* (*754–717 B.C.* od. *1–37* der *Stadt Rom*) ⦗*Romulus* bedeutet hier nicht *Person*, sondern *Zeitperiode*, wie bei seinen Nachfolgern ⦘ *Latin tribes* – on *Alban hills u. ranges of the Appenines* östlich von Rom – durch Segmentation bereits in *30 independent tribes* zerfallen, still united in loose *confederacy* für mutual protection; ebenso *Sabellians, Oscans, Umbrians*. Alle, wie ihre nördlichen Nachbarn, *Etrusker*, organized in *gentes*.

Zur Zeit v. *Rom’s Stiftung* (about *753 B.C.*) had become *agricultural* mit *flocks of domestic animals, monogamian family*, confederacy in form of *League*. – The *Etruskan* tribes confederated.

Die *Latin tribes*, possessed of numerous fortified towns u. country strongholds, spread over the surface of the country for agricultural purposes.

Unter den *institutions der Latin tribes* bei Beginn der historischen Periode: *gentes, curiae u. tribes*. *Latin gentes* of same lineage, *Sabine* u. other gentes *cognate*, except *Etruscans*. Zur Zeit des *Tarquinius Priscus*, 4ter von Romulus, the organization brought to a *numerical scale*: *10 gentes to curia, 10 curiae to a tribe, 3 tribes*, giebt 30 curiae u. 300 gentes.

Statt *confederacy of tribes, composed of gentes* u. *occupying separate territories* makes Romulus them concentrate u. coalesce in *one city*; dies worked out in 5 generations. *Auf u. um Mons Palatinus* vereinigte Romulus *100 gentes*, organized as a tribe, die *Ramnes*; dann *large body of Sabines* added, deren *gentes*, nachher *increased to* 100, organized as a *2nd Tribe, Tities* (angeblich auf *Quirinal*); unter Tarquinius Priscus *3d tribe, Luceres*, 100 gentes drawn from the *surrounding tribes*, inclus. *Etruscans. – Senate* (Council of Chiefs), *comitia curiata* (assembly of the people) u. *military commander (rex)*. Unter *Servius Tullius* wurde *Senat* »patrician«, patrician rank being conferred upon its members u. their posterity; dadurch *privileged class* created, intrenched first in the *gentile* u. dann *political system*, ultimately overthrew the democratic principles inherited von gentes.

*Niebuhr, Hermann, Mommsen* etc *regard the gens as composed of families*, während *family composed of parts of families*, u. *gens*, nicht *family unit des social system*.

Man weiss wenig über ältere »social« history of Rom; weil *power of gentes* bereits übertragen auf *new political bodies* bevor römische Geschichtschreibung beginnt. *Gajus – Institutiones* III. 17 – sagt: »*Qui sint autem gentiles*, primo commentario rettulimus; et cum illic admonuerimus, *totum gentilicium jus in desuetudinem abisse*, supervacuum est, hoc quoque loco de ea re curiosius tractare.«

*Cicero, topica 6.* »*Gentiles* sunt, qui inter se *eodem nomine (totem!)* sunt. Non est satis. Qui ab *ingenuis oriundi* sunt. Ne id quidem satis est. Quorum *majorum nemo servitutem* servivit. Abest etiam nunc. Qui *capite non sunt deminuti*. Hoc fortasse satis est. Nihil enim video *Scaevolam*, Pontificem, ad hanc definitionem *addidisse*.«

*Festus:* »*Gentilis* dicitur et *ex eodem genere ortus*, et is qui *simili nomine appellatur*.«

*Varro: »De lingua latina«* lib. VIII, c. 4. »Ut in hominibus *quaedam sunt agnationes* ac *gentilitates*, sic in verbis; ut enim *ab Aemilio homines orti Aemilii*, ac *gentiles*; sic ab *Aemilii nomine* declinatae voces in *gentilitate nominali*; ab eo enim, quod est impositum recto casu Aemilius, [orta Aemilii,] Aemilium, Aemilios, Aemiliorum; et sic reliqua, *ejusdem quae sunt stirpis*.«

Durch andre Quellen constatirt *dass die nur zur gens gehörten who could trace their descent durch males exclusively from an acknowledged ancestor in der gens*; musste den »gentile *name*« haben (dies *Cicero*).

*445 B.C.* In address des *Roman Tribun Canulejus*, on his motion das Gesetz abzuschaffen das verbot *intermarriage* zwischen patricians u. plebejans, sagte er: *(Livius IV, c. 4)* »Quid enim in re est aliud, si *plebejam* patricius duxerit, si *patriciam* plebejus? Quid juris tandem mutatur? *nempe patrem sequuntur liberi.*« (Dies involvirt *descent in male line*) Als praktische Illustration, dass *descent in male line*: *Julia, Schwester* des *Cajus Julius Caesar*, married *Marcus Attius Balbus*. Ihr Name zeigt, dass sie gehörig zur *Julian gens*. Ihre Tochter *Attia* nahm gentile name of her father, belonged to *Attian gens*. Attia married *Cajus Octavius*, ward Mutter des *Cajus Octavius* (i.e. der spätre *Augustus*). Ihr Sohn nimmt Name des Vaters, belongs to the *Octavian* gens.

Nach *Adams, Roman Antiquities*: War nur *eine Tochter* in family, so called nach *Name der gens*; so *Tullia*, Tochter des *Cicero*; *Julia*, Tochter des Caesar; *Octavia*, Schwester des Augustus etc. Sie *behielten denselben Namen bei nach Verheirathung*. Wenn *2 Töchter, die eine called Major*, die andere *Minor* (wie bei Savages) . Wenn mehr als 2, unterschieden durch ihre *Zahl* in *Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta*, oder softer *Tertulla, Quartilla, Quintilla*. … Während des *blühenden Zustands der Republik*, die *names der gentes*, u. *surnames der families*, blieben fix u. certain. They were common to all the children der family, descended to their posterity. Changed u. confounded *nach subversion of liberty*.

So lange wir v. Römern wissen, *descent in male line*. In allen oben citirten *cases persons married out of the gens*.

*Folgende rights u. obligations der Roman gentes:*

1) *Mutual rights of succession to the property of deceased gentiles*; 2) *Possession of common burial place*; 3) *common religious rites; sacra gentilicia*; 4) *Obligation not to marry in gens*; 5) *Common Possession of lands*, 6) *Reciprocal obligations of help, defence*, and *redress of injuries*; 7) *Right to bear the gentile name*; 8) *Right to adopt strangers into the gens.* 9) *Right to elect and depose chiefs?*

*ad 1) 451. B.C. Law of 12 tables promulgated*; ancient rule *der inheritance unter gentiles* bereits superseded; passed to *sui heredes* (children) u. in *default of children* to *lineal descendants* des defunct through males. *Gajus , Inst. l. III, 1 u. 2.* (*wife* was co-heiress mit children) Die living children took equally, die *children of deceased sons the share of their father equally*; the *inheritance remained so in the gens*; the *children of female descendants of the intestate, who belonged to other gentes*, were *excluded*. Wenn *no »sui heredes«* (ib. *lib. III*, 9) by *same law* – the *inheritance passed to the Agnates; agnatic kindred* all persons able to trace *descent through males from same common ancestor with the intestate*; vonwegen *dieses descent all bore the same gentile name*, females wie males, u. were nearer in degree to the deceased als die *remaining gentiles*. Die *Agnates, nearest in degree*, hatten Vorzug; 1) *brothers* u. *unmarried sisters*; 2) *paternal uncles u. unmarried aunts* des intestate u.s.w. Aber die *children of married sisters* ausgeschlossen – weil *zu andrer gens gehörig* – eben by *gentile kinsmen* (agnatic), dass ihre relation to intestate nur noch nachweisbar *in gentile name*; the gentile right predominated über *consanguinity*, weil das principle, *retaining the property in the gens*, fundamental. Die Reihenfolge (historische) ist natürlich grade die *umgekehrte* von der, wie sie in den 12 Tafeln erscheint. 1) die *gentiles*; 2) die *Agnates, worunter* die *Kinder des intestate* nach change of descent v. weiblicher in *male line*; 3) die *Kinder, mit Ausschluss der [übrigen] Agnaten*.

Durch Heirath erlitt a female *deminutio capitis*; i.e. *forfeited her agnatic rights*; an *unmarried sister* could inherit, *nicht a married*, would have *transferred the property* in andre gens.

Von dem Archaischen erhielt sich am längsten in Rom *reversion of property in certain cases to the gentiles* (bemerkt auch Niebuhr . – The *freedman* (Emancipirte) erwarb nicht *gentile rights* in his master’s gens durch manumission, aber allowed to *adopt the gentile name of his patron*, so Cicero’s freedman *Tyro* called: *M. Tullius Tyro*. Das *Gesetz der 12 Tafeln* gave the estate eines freedman, der intestate starb, to *his former patron*) .

*ad 2)* Im *Upper Status of Barbarism* – a *burial place for the exclusive use of members of the gens*. So *unter den Romans*. z. B. *Appius Claudius*, chief der Claudian gens, removed from Regili, town der Sabini, nach Rom, wo er Senator wurde, mit seiner *gens* u. *vielen Clienten*. *Suet.*, *vita Tiberius*, c. I sagt: »*Patricia gens Claudia … agrum* (Theil der *state lands*) insuper trans Anienem (upon the Anio) *clientibus locumque sibi ad sepulturam sub Capitolio*, publice accepit.« Er received burial place for the gens nach damaliger custom.

Das *family tomb* hatte in Zeit v. Julius Caesar noch nicht *ganz das der gens* superseded: Beweis *Quintilius Varus*, had lost his army in Germany, destroyed himself, sein Körper fiel in die Hände der Feinde, half burnt. *Vellejus Paterculus* II, 119: »*Vari corpus semiustrum* hostilis *laceraverat* feritas; *caput ejus abscisum*, latumque ad *Maroboduum*, et ab eo missum ad Caesarem, *gentilitii [tandem] tumuli sepultura* honoratum est.«

*Cic. de Legibus* II, 22. »Iam tanta religio est *sepulcrorum* (so gross die Heiligkeit der Begräbnisse), *ut extra sacra et gentem* (ohne religious rites u. Grabstätte der gens) *inferri fas negent esse*; idque *apud majores nostros* A. Torquatus in gente Popilia judicavit.« In *Cicero’s* Zeit das *family tomb* nahm den Platz ein of that of the gens, as the families in the gentes rose to complete autonomy. –

*Vor den 12 Tafeln cremation u. inhumation* equally practiced, 12 Tafeln verboten Verbrennen od. *Begraben innerhalb der city*. Das *columbarium* (a sepulchre mit niches for urns) would usually *accommodate several 100 urns*.

*ad 3) Sacra privata* od. *sacra gentilicia*, performed by the gens at stated periods. (alle members der gens dazu verpflichtet, ob *members by birth, adoption oder adrogation*. „ A person was *freed from them* u. lost the privileges, connected with them, *when he lost his gens*.“) Cases erwähnt, wo die expension of maintaining these rites, *Bürde für gens* wurde in Folge der verminderten Anzahl ihrer Glieder. *The sacred rites* – public and private – *exclusiv under pontifical regulation, not subject to civil cognizance*.

*Colleges of Pontiffs, curiones u. augurs*, with elaborate system of worship unter diesen priesthoods, became established, aber *priesthood* in *the main elective*; jedes Familienhaupt auch *priest des household*.

In *early times* of Rome hatten *viele gentes* their *own sacellum* (small *unroofed* sanctuary; a chapel; *sacellum est locus parvus deo sacratus cum ara* (*Trebatius in Gell.* [VI,] c. 12); *Sacella dicuntur loca diis sacrata sine tecto, Festus*) für performance ihrer religious rites; *several gentes* had each *special sacrifices* to perform transmitted from generation to generation, considered obligatory, Nautii to Minerva, Fabii to Hercules etc.

*ad 4) gentile regulations were customs having the forms of law*; so *Verbot der intermarriage in gens*; scheint zu Rom nicht später in *Gesetz* verwandelt worden zu sein; aber die *Roman genealogy* beweist die rule – marriage out of gens. Zeigt sich darin ferner: ohne Ausnahme: a *woman by her marriage forfeited her agnatic right*, weil became *ex-gens*. (sollte property aus eigner gens in die ihres husband nicht transfer.) Aus selbem Grund: *exclusion der Kinder of a female from all rights of inheritance from a maternal uncle or grandfather*; da sie *ausser gens* heirathet, ihre *children* of *the gens of the father* – also nicht von *ihrer* gens, also dort auch nichts zu erben.

*ad 5): Common property of lands*, allgemein unter barbarous tribes, darum natürlich bei *Latin tribes*; von *sehr früher Periode* erscheint Theil ihrer lands *held in severalty by individuals*; at first sicher nur *possessory right to lands in actual occupation*, was sich schon im *Lower Status of barbarism* findet.

*Unter den rustic Latin tribes, lands held in common by each tribe, other lands by gentes, still other by households.*

*Allotments of lands to individuals* wurden gewöhnlich in Romulus Period, später quite general. Sagt *Varro, De Re rustica l. I, c. 10:* »*Bina jugera* quod a Romulo *primum divisa* (dicebantur) viritim, quae [(quod)] *haeredem* sequerentur, *haeredium appellarunt*.« (Selbes bei *Dionysius*) *Similar allotments* said to have been made by *Numa* u. *Servius Tullius*; diese die *beginnings of absolute ownership in severalty*, presuppose a settled life etc. It was not only *admeasured* but *granted by the government*, form *sehr verschieden* von *possessory right in lands growing out of an individual act* … These *lands taken from those held in common by the Roman people*. *Gentes, curiae u. tribes* held *certain lands in common* nach Beginn der Civilization, ausser den individual allotments.

*Mommsen* sagt, dass: „das römische Territorium in den frühesten Zeiten *getheilt* in Anzahl von *clan* (heisst wohl *Geschlechter* bei ihm!) *districts*; die später employed in the formation der *ältesten rural wards (tribus rusticae)* … Diese *Namen* (der Districts) *nicht wie die der districts added at a later period, derived von den localities, sondern formed ohne Ausnahme v. Geschlechternamen*, wie *Camillii, Galerii, Lemonii, Pollii, Pupinii, Voltinii, Aemilii, Cornelii, Fabii, Horatii, Menenii, Papirii, Romilii, Sergii, Veturii.*“ *Jede gens* hielt also *independent district u. was localized upon it*. ⦗aber auch *in Rom* selbst *gentes localized in separate areas*⦘

*Mommsen* sagt ferner:

„Wie *jeder Haushalt* seine eigne Portion Land hatte, so der *clan*-household (dies wohl nicht das Wort bei Mommsen) or village, had *clan-lands* belonging to it *which* … were *managed up to a comparatively* late period after the *analogy* (!) *of house-lands*, that is, *on the system of common possession* … *These clanships* jedoch von Anfang an nicht betrachtet als *unabhängige Gesellschaften*, sondern als *integral parts of a political community (civitas populi)*. This first presents itself as *an aggregate of a number of clan-villages of the same stock, language and manners*, bound to mutual observance of law and mutual legal redress and to united action in aggression and defence.“ Mommsen represents the *Latin tribes anterior to the foundation of Rome as holding lands by households, gentes u. by tribes*, zeigt the *ascending series of social organizations in the tribes*, ganz *parallelism to den Iroquois – gens, tribe, confederacy*. Phratry nicht mentioned. *The household referred to* could scarcely *have been a single family*, wahrscheinlich *composed of related families occupying a joint-tenement house* u. *practicirend communism in living in the household*.

*ad 6) Erstes feature* des gentilism – *dependence der gentiles upon each other for the protection of personal rights*; verschwindet zuerst, sobald *civitas* gegründet, wo jeder Bürger sich für Protection *an law u. State* wendet; kann in *historischer Periode* nur noch *in remains* gefunden werden bei Römern.

About *432 B.C.* Appius Claudius in prison geworfen. Aber *Livius* VI, 20: *»Ap. Claudio in vincula ducto, C. Claudium inimicum* (des Appius Cl.) *Claudiamque omnem gentem sordidatam* (in mourning Kleidern) *fuisse.«*

Während des *2t punischen Kriegs*, bemerkt *Niebuhr*, verbanden *sich* die gentes *to ransom ihre in Gefangenschaft befindlichen Genossen*; der *Senat verbot’s ihnen*; nach selbem *Niebuhr* gens *verpflichtet* ihren *indigent gentiles* beizustehn; er citirt dafür *Dionysius*: *II, 10. »ἔδει τοὺς πελάτας τῶν ἀναλωμάτων ὡς τοὺς γένει προσήκοντας μετέχειν.«*

*ad 7)* Zuletzt den persons unmöglich geworden *to trace their descent back to the founder*. *Niebuhr* (auf diesen abgeschmackten Grund sich stützend) *läugnet die Existenz irgend welcher Blutverwandtschaft* in a gens, *weil sie nicht beweisen konnten a connection through a common ancestor*; danach *gens bloss fictitious organization* …

Nachdem *descent von female to male line changed*, die *Namen der gentes, wahrscheinlich taken v. animals, gave place to personal names*. Irgend ein *Individuum*, berühmt in der Traditionellen Geschichte der gens, ward its *eponymous ancestor* u. *diese Person*, nicht unlikely, at *long intervals* wieder *ersetzt durch andre*. Theilte sich *a gens* in Folge von lokaler Separation, so *one division apt to take a new name*; dieser *change of name* would not *disturb the kinship* worauf die gens begründet … nur auf einem Weg *adulteration of gentile descent* – durch *Adoption*, dies nicht häufig. … In an Iroquois gens of 500 persons – gens coming in with a *system of consanguinity reducing all consanguinei to a small number of categories*, and retaining their descendants indefinitely in the same – all its members related to each other and each person knows or can find its relationship to every other; so that the *fact of kin was* perpetually present in *archaic gens*. – Mit *monogamian Ehe* came *in a totally different system of consanguinity*, worin die *relationships zwischen collaterals rasch disappeared*. Dies System der *Greek u. Latin tribes* bei Beginn der historischen Periode.

*Grote*, *History of Greece* III, 33, 36 erzählt: *Cleisthenes of Argos* changed the *names of the 3 Dorian tribes* of *Sicyon*, einen in *Hyatae* (im singular: *a boar*), 2ten in *Oneatae* (an *ass*), 3d to *Choereatae (little pig)*; dies *intended as insult* gegen die Sicyonians, blieben ihnen während seiner Lebzeit u. 60 Jahre später. »Did the idea of *these animal names come down through tradition*?«

*Nach Beginn des Verfalls der gentilen Organization*, hört auf *neue Geschlechterbildung durch den process of segmentation; andre existirende died out*. This *tended to enhance the value of a gentile descent as a lineage*.

Zur Zeit des Kaiserthums etablirten fortwährend sich *neue Familien from foreign parts*, zu *Rom* u. nahmen *gentile names an* to *gain social advantages*. *Emperor Claudius – 40–54 A.D.* – verbot den foreigners röm. Namen anzunehmen, besonders *alter Geschlechter*. *Sueton. Vit. Claudius, c. 25* sagt: »Peregrinae conditionis homines vetuit usurpare Romana nomina, dumtaxat gentilicia.« Römische Familien, belonging to the historical gentes, setzten höchsten Werth auf their lineages, sowohl unter Empire wie vorher in republic.

*ad 8)* Sowohl *unter Republik wie Empire* practicirt *adoption into the family*, die carried the *person adopted into the gens* of the family; das *attended mit formalities*, die es erschwerten. *Kinderlose Person u. past the age to expect them* might *adopt a son* mit *consent der pontifices* u. der *comitia curiata*. *Cicero, Pro Domo, c. 13.* Die noch zu Cicero’s Zeit existirenden precautions, zeigen dass früher die restrictions grösser u. cases seltner.

*ad 9)* Bei Römern keine direct information über *tenure des office of chief (princeps)*; jede *gens*, vor Entstehung der civitas, hatte *einen chief*, probably mehre; *hereditary right* dazu wahrscheinlich nicht bei *Latin tribes*, da *elective principle* später vorwiegt – i.e. unter *reges* u. in *Republik*; der *rex* selbst, das *highest office*, was *elective*, the office of *senator elective* or by *appointment*, so that of *consuls u. inferior magistrates*. Das *college of pontiffs* – instituted durch Numa – filled erst (die *pontiffs selbst sich ergänzend*) vacancies by *election*; *Livius* (XXV, 5) spricht of *election* of a *pontifex maximus* durch die *comitia* about *212 B.C.* Auf *Volk* transferred, durch *lex Domitia*, the right to elect the members of the *several colleges* of pontiffs u. priests, später modified durch *Sulla*. – Also abgeschmackt – ohne positive evidence – anzunehmen dass *office of princeps (chief of gens) »hereditary«* was. Wo *aber Wahlrecht* – the tenure des office being for life – da auch *Recht to depose*.

Diese *chiefs of gentes* od. eine *selection davon*, bildeten den *Council der Latin tribes* vor Stiftung Roms. „All *of these cantons* (read *tribes*) were in primitive times *politically* (asinus!) sovereign, u. each of them was governed by its prince ⦗Prinzerfindender Mommsen; read chief of the tribe⦘, and *the co-operation of the council of elders*, and *the assembly of the warriors*“ (*Mommsen*). It was the *council*, Herr Mommsen, u. nicht der *military commander*, Mommsen’s *Prinz*, who governed.

*Niebuhr* sagt: „In all the *cities* belonging to civilized nations on the coasts of the Mediterranean a *senate was a no less essential and indispensable part of the state, than a popular assembly*; it was *a select body of elder citizens*; *such a council*, says *Aristoteles*, there always is, *whether the council be aristocratical or democratical*; even in *oligarchies*, be the number of sharers in the sovereignty ever so small, certain councillors are appointed for preparing public measures.“ *Senate* of polit. society folgte dem *council of chiefs der gentile society*. Romulus *Senate* 100 elders, representing the 100 gentes, was *office for life, non-hereditary*, woraus folgt dass *office of chief* was at the time elective.

*About 474 B.C.* die *Fabian gens* schlug dem Senat vor als a gens to undertake the *Veientian* war. Ihr Antrag accepted, fielen in Embuscade. *Liv. II, 50* ⦗see auch *Ovid, Fasti*, II, 193⦘ »*Trecentos sex* (so viel zogen aus) perisse satis convenit; *unum prope puberem* (unter age of puberty) *aetate relictum stirpem genti Fabiae, dubiisque rebus populi Romani saepe domi bellique vel maximum futurum auxilium*.« Die Zahl der 300 would indicate an equal number of females, who with the children of the males, would give an aggregate von at least 700 für Fabian gens (nicht der *eine pubes*) .

## Pt. II. Ch. XII: The Roman Curia, Tribe and Populus.

⦗Angebliche *Perioden* bis zur Errichtung der Republik: 1) *Romulus 754–717* B.C. (*1–37* a.u.c.) 2) *Numa Pompilius*. *717–679* B.C. (*37–75* a.u.) 3) *Tullus Hostilius*. *679–640* B.C. *(75–114 a.u.)* 4) *Ancus Martius*. *640–618 B.C. (114–136 a.u*.) 5) *Tarquinius Priscus 618–578* B.C. *(136–176 a.u.)* 6) *578–534* B.C. *(176–220 a.u.) Servius Tullius*. 7) *534–509 B.C. (220–245 a.u.) Tarquinius Superbus*.⦘

*Societas*, founded upon *gens*, neben *civitas*, founded upon territory u. property; letztere Organization im Lauf *v. 200 Jahren* gradually supplanting the former; *to a certain degree completed der change* unter *Servius Tullius (578–534 B.C. 176–220 a.u.)*. *curia*, analogous to Grecian phratry, = 10 gentes; *10 curiae* = 1 tribe; unter *Servius Tullius* war *Populus Romanus* = *3 tribes, 30 curiae, 300 gentes*. Wurst ob Roman kings fabelhaft od. nicht; ebenso Wurst, ob die legislation ascribed to either of them be fabulous or true. *The events of human progress embody themselves*, independently of particular men, *in a material record, which is crystallized in institutions, usages u. customs, u. preserved in inventions u. discoveries*.

Das *numerical adjustment von gentes* etc – a *result of legislative procurement* not older, in the first 2 tribes, than the times of Romulus.

The *curia* der Romans – ungleich der Phratry der Greeks u. Iroquois, grew into an organization, having distinct *governmental character engrafted* upon itself. Wahrscheinlich die gentes einer Curia related to each other, versahn sich einander durch *intermarriage* mit wives. (Dies Conjectur.) The organization as a phratry – obgleich erst mentioned in Roman history in connection mit *legislation* des Romulus, von time immemorial in *Latin tribes*.

*Livius, I, 13:* »Itaque, *quum* (der Romulus) populum in *curias triginta* divideret (nach dem Frieden mit den Sabinern), *nomina earum* (der geraubten Sabinerinnen) curiis imposuit.«

*Dionys. Antiq. of Rome, II, 7: »φράτρα δὲ καὶ λόχος* (Kriegerschaar, Rotte) *ἡ κουρία«*; *ibid.* heisst’s: »διῄρηντο δὲ καὶ εἰς δεκάδας αἱ φρᾶτραι πρὸς αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἡγεμὼν ἑκάστην ἐκόσμει δεκάδαρχος κατὰ τὴν ἐπιχώριον γλῶτταν προσαγορευόμενος.«

*Plut. Vit. Rom. c. 20:* »*Ἑκάστη δὲ φυλὴ δέκα φρατρίας εἶχεν*, *ἃς ἔνιοι λέγουσιν ἐπωνύμους εἶναι ἐκείνων τῶν γυναικῶν*.« Was Romulus that *was the adjustment of the number of gentes in each tribe*, was er fertig bringen konnte durch die *accessions gained from the surrounding tribes*. In die Ramnes (ersten tribe) nahm er *related gentes* in selber curia, reached *numerical symmetry* by arbitrarily taking the *excess of gentes von one natural curia to supply the deficiency of the other* (kommt auch bei den Red Indians vor). Die *Tities* meist *Sabiner*; die *Luceres* heterogeneous, formed later from gradual accessions u. conquests; enthielten auch *Etruscan gentes*. In der reconstruction *gens* blieb *pure, curia* made to include in some cases gentes nicht related, *durchbrach also Schranke der natural phratry; ebenso tribe umschloss foreign elements* that *not belong* to *a tribe by merely spontaneous growth*. The third tribe (Luceres) in great part an *artificial creation*; *Etruscan element* darin lässt annehmen, that **their dialect not** *wholly unintelligible to Romans*.

*Niebuhr* zeigte zuerst that the *people was sovereign*, so-called *kings* had *delegated power*, u. *dass der Senat based on principle of representation*. Aber Niebuhr at variance with facts, wenn er sagt: die *numerischen Proportions* seien unwiderleglicher Beweis dass die Roman gentes *nicht älter als die Constitution des Romulus*, dass sie *„Corporations formed by a legislator in harmony with the rest of his scheme“*. A legislator could not fabricate a gens; auch eine curia konnte er nur machen by combinating gentes; er konnte by constraint increase or decrease the *number of gentes in a curia u. the number of curiae in a tribe*.

Die *Stelle bei Dionysius (Halicarnassensis) 1. II. c. 7* lautet in full: »Nachdem er (Romulus) die ganze Masse dreigetheilt, machte er den Hervorragendsten jedes der (3) Theile zum leader (*ἡγεμόνα ἐπέστησεν*); dann theilte er wieder *jeden der 3 Theile in 10*, zu gleichen (im Rang *ἴσους*) Führern dieser ernannte er wieder die tüchtigsten; die (3) grössern Theile nannte er *tribus*, die kleineren *Curien* (κουρίας), wie sie auch jetzt noch heissen. In *griech. Sprache* interpretirt ist der *tribus = φυλή* od. *τριττύς*; die *curia = φράτρα* u. *λόχος* (Band, Kriegerrotte); die Männer an der Spitze der *tribus = φύλαρχοι* u. *τριττύαρχοι*, die die Römer *Tribunen* nennen. ⦗*Tribun also literally das* Equivalent des *alten tribe Chief*⦘ Die Vorsteher der *Curien* = *φρατρίαρχοι* u. *λοχαγοί*, welche die Römer *Curionen* nennen. Die *Phratrien* wurden wieder abgetheilt in Dekaden, u. ein Führer leitete jede Dekade, *Decurio* genannt in der Landeszunge. Nachdem aber so alle eingetheilt u. zusammengestellt in *Phylen u. Phratrien, theilte er das Land in 30 gleiche Loose, gab jeder Phratrie ein Loos*, nahm Land genügend für sacra u. Tempel, u. *liess auch gewisses Land für gemeinschaftlichen Gebrauch* übrig (καί *τινα καὶ τῷ κοινῷ γῆν καταλιπών*). Nur diese Theilung von Leuten u. Land durch Romulus, *allgemeine u. grösste Gleichheit*.«

Mitglieder der *curia* hiessen *curiales*; *wählten* einen priest *curio*, chief officer der fraternity; jede hatte its sacred rites, its *sacellum* as a place of worship u. *ihren Versammlungsplatz* für transaction of business; neben dem curio gewählt an assistant priest *flamen curialis*, had the immediate charge of the observances; die Volksversammlung *comitia curiata*, sovereign power in Rom, mehr als der Senat des gentile system.

*Vor Zeit* des Romulus unter den *Latin tribes* – *tribal chiefs* (Dionysius II, 7); ein tribal chief – der *chief officer des tribe*, whose duties magisterial (in city), *military* (in the field) u. *religious* (administering the sacra) *(Dionys. l.c.)*. Jedenfalls his *office* elective, *wahrscheinlich* gewählt durch die *curiae collected in a general assembly*. Der »tribal chief« wahrscheinlich genannt *»rex«* vor der Gründung Roms, ebenso der *Council Senate* (senex) u. die *tribal assembly – comitia* (con-ire). Nach der *coalescence der 3 Roman tribes* – the *national character of the tribe* lost.

Die *30 curiones* as a body wurden organisirt in *a college of priests*, einer davon had the office of *curio maximus*; was elected by the *assembly of gentes*. Daneben *college of augurs*, bestehend unter *Ogulnian law* (300 B.C.) aus 9 members, inclus. their chief – *magister collegii*; u. *college of pontiffs*, 9 members unter demselben Gesetz, inclus. pontifex maximus.

*Das Ganze*, as organized by Romulus nannte sich: *Populus Romanus*; war nichts als *a gentile society*; change *ernöthigt* u. zwar *fundamental one* durch raschen Anwachs der Bevölkerung unter Romulus u. namentlich in der Periode *zwischen ihm u. Servius Tullius*. (754–534)

*Livius* sagt, dass es *»vetus consilium« (Livy I, 8)*, alter trick, of the founders of cities to draw to themselves an obscure and humble multitude, and then set up for their progeny the autochthonic claim. Romulus so opened an asylum near the Palatine, u. invited all persons in the surrounding tribes etc. »Eo ex *finitimis populis turba omnis sine discrimine, liber an servus esset, avida novarum rerum perfugit; idque primum ad coeptam magnitudinem roboris fuit*.« *(Liv. I, 8.) Plut. Romulus c. 20* u. *Dionys*. II, 15 erwähnen auch das *asylum or grove*. Zeigt, dass die *Barbarische Bevölkerung Italiens* sehr angewachsen, discontent unter ihnen, Mangel an persönlicher Sicherheit, *existence of domestic slavery*, apprehension of violence. – *Angriff seitens der Sabiner*, wegen der ihnen gestohlnen Weiber; resultirte in Compromiss, Latiner u. Sabiner *coalesced* into one society, *jede division behielt its own military leader*, die *Tities* (Sabiner) *unter Titius Tatius*. – *679–640 B.C. Tullus Hostilius* nahm die *Latin city of Alba*, brachte ihre ganze *Bevölkerung nach Rom*; sie besetzten angeblich *Coelian Hill*; Zahl der citizens *nun doubled* nach *Liv. I, 30*. *640–618 : Ancus Marcius* nahm die lat. Stadt *Politorium*, transferred the people bodily to Rome; ihnen angeblich *Aventinus mons* eingeräumt mit same privileges. Kurz nachher die *inhabitants of Tellini* u. *Ficana* subdued, removed to Rome, also occupied *Mons Aventinus. (Liv. I, 38)* Die gentes, nach Rom gebracht, blieben alle *locally distinct*; dies thaten gentes überall in *Middle* u. *Upper Status of Barbarism*, sobald die *tribes* began to gather in *fortresses* u. *walled cities*. ⦗In the *pueblo houses* in *New Mexico alle occupants of each house belonged to the same tribe u. in einigen Fällen a single joint-tenement house contained a tribe. At Tlascala 4 quarters occupied by 4 lineages, probably phratries etc*⦘ Die greater portion dieser new accessions united in the *3d tribe Luceres*, der erst completed unter *Tarquinius Priscus (618–578)* durch *Einverleibung einiger neuer Etruskischer gentes*.

*Growth der tribes* in Rome under *legislative constraint*, not entirely free from the admixture of Foreign elements; hence name *tribus*, ⅓ of the people; Latin language must have had a *term equivalent of Phyle*, became extinct; zeigt heterogeneous elements in Roman tribes, während griech. Phyle pure.

Der *Senate* des Romulus mit functions similar to those of the *previous council of chiefs*. *Jede gens*, sagt Niebuhr , *sent its decurion, who was its alderman* to represent it in the Senate. Also representative u. elective body, blieb elective od. selective bis zum Empire. Office der Senators lebenslänglich, *einziger term of office then known* (wie *farmer* bei *Anglosaxon mindestens for one life*). *Liv. 1, 8* sagt: »Centum creat (Romulus) senatores: sive quia is numerus satis erat (Kerl vergisst, that there were then only 100 gentes, constituting the tribe der Ramnes); *sive quia soli centum erant*, qui *creari Patres possent* (Superlativ dies von faselndem Pragmatismus), Patres certe ab honore ⦗Pater, weil chief of gens⦘, *patriciique progenies* eorum appellati.« *Cic. de rep. II, 8:* »*Principes*, qui appellati sunt propter caritatem, *patres*.« Die distinction of *patricians* conferred upon their children u. lineal descendants in perpetuity schuf at once an *aristocracy of rank* in centre des Roman social system where it became firmly intrenched; this *aristocratic element now for the first time planted in gentilism*.

*Nach der union der Sabines* Senat increased to 200 durch addition v. 100 v. tribe der Tities *(Dion. II, 47)* u. when *Luceres* increased to 100 gentes in time der Patricians, a 3d 100 added v. den gentes dieses tribe; durch *Tarquinius Priscus*.

*Liv. I, 35:* »Nec minus *regni sui firmandi*, quam augendae rei publicae memor, *centum in Patres legit (Tarquin. Priscus)* qui deinde *minorum gentium* sunt appellati: *factio haud dubia regis*, cujus beneficio in *curiam* venerant.« Etwas verschieden *Cic. De Rep. II, 20*: »Isque (Tarquinius) ut de suo imperio legem tulit, principio *duplicavit* illum *pristinum patrum numerum* (dies setzt voraus, dass die Alten patres v. 200 auf 150 herabgesunken; waren dann 50 zu ergänzen aus Ramnes u. Tities und 100 neu zugefügt aus Luceres); et *antiquos patres majorum gentium appellavit*, ⦗dies auch *bei Iroquois*, aber mit der primitiven Bedeutung, dass die minores gentes *Abkommen* der majores, später daher gebildet⦘ quos priores sententiam rogabat; *a se adscitos, minorum*.«

Die Form des statement shows, dass *jeder Senator representative of a gens*; ferner, da jede gens sicher hatte its *principal chief – princeps* – diese person chosen von gens od. 10 auf einmal v. *den 10 gentes wählend als curia*. Dies dem Wesen nach auch *Niebuhr ’s Ansicht*. Nach der Errichtung der Republik (seit *509 B.C.*) besetzen die *Censoren* die Lücken im Senat nach ihrer choice, dies fiel später den *Consules* zu; die Senators generally *selected* aus *ex-magistrates der higher grades*.

*All public measures originated im Senat*, sowohl die, wobei sie unabhängig verfahren konnten, als die die sie der popular assembly zur adoption to submit. Der Senat hatte *general guardianship of public welfare, management der foreign relations, levy of taxes and military forces, general control of revenues u. expenditure*; hatte auch oberste *power over religion*, obgleich die administration der religious affairs den several collegia zufiel.

*Assembly of the People* (in dieser Form unknown in Lower u. wahrscheinlich auch Middle Status of Barbarism) existed in *Upper Status*, in *agora der Greek tribes* (highest form in *ecclesia der Athener*), u. ebenso in der *assembly of warriors der Latin tribes*, erhielt hier höchste Form in den *comitia curiata der Römer*. Letztre bestanden aus den *adult members der gentes, jede curia had one collective vote, majority in each ascertained separately*, determined what that vote should be. (*Liv*. I, 43; *Dion. II, 14*, IV, 20, 84.) Es war die *assembly der gentes, who alone were members of the government. Plebejans u. clients* – forming already a numerous class, *excluded*, weil keine connection möglich mit *Populus Romanus*, ausser durch a gens and a tribe. *Comitia* did *not originate* public measures, *nor amend* those submitted to them; *nahmen sie an od. verwarfen* sie; *alle magistrates* u. *high public functionaries*, incl. rex, elected by the comitia *on the nomination of the Senate*. So durch *comitia curiata* elected *Numa Pompilius* (*Cic. De Rep.* II, 11. *Liv.* I, 17), *Tullus Hostilius (Cic. de Rep. II, 17)* u. *Ancus Martius* (*Cic. De Rep.* II, 18; *Liv.* I, 32). Mit Bezug auf *Tarquinius Priscus* bemerkt *Livius* (I, 35), dass der Populus durch great majority ihn zum *rex* ernannte. *Servius Tullius* assumed the office, afterwards *confirmed* by the *comitia (Cic. De Rep. II, 21)*. – The *Imperium* conferred upon these persons by *a law of the assembly* – *Lex curiata de imperio* – Roman method of investing with office; vor dieser Uebertragung des imperium konnte die person elected nicht ihr office antreten. Die *comitia curiata*, by appeal, had the *ultimate decision in criminal cases* involving the life of a Roman citizen. The *office of rex abolished by a popular movement*.

Die *assembly had no power to convene itself*; it is said to have met on the *summons of the rex*, oder in his absence, des *praefectus urbi*; in der Republik *durch die consules* berufen, od. in deren absence durch *praetor*; in allen Fällen präsidirte die berufende Person über die deliberations der comitia.

Der *rex* war General u. Priest, aber *ohne civil functions*.

Nach Abschaffung des Königthums *2 consules* an seine Stelle, wie die *2 war-chiefs der Iroquois*.

Der *rex as chief priest* took the *auspices* on field of battle wie in city on important occasions, verrichtete auch *other religious rites*. Nach Abschaffung der Königswürde, ihre *priestly functions übertragen* auf das neu geschaffne office des *rex sacrorum* od. *rex sacrificulus*; bei Athenern analog der eine der 9 Archonten *Archon basileus*, der a general supervision of religious affairs hatte. – Die Romans in diesen 200 years (bis *Servius Tullius*) had experienced the *necessity for written laws to be enacted by themselves als Substitut for usages u. customs*; had created ausserdem a *city magistracy* u. *a complete military system*, including the *institution of the equestrian order*.

Unter den *new magistrates* created wichtigster that of *warden of the city – custos urbis*, war zugleich *Princeps Senatus*. Nach *Dionys.* II, 12 appointed by Romulus. Nach der *Zeit der Decemviri* (451–447) dies office changed to *praefectus urbi*, its powers enlarged u. it was made elective by the *new comitia centuriata*. ⦗*Census u. comitia centuriata* eingesetzt durch Servius Tullius nach *seiner division des people according to property* … das trial of *Coriolan* bewog die Tribunen to usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of the people; hence the *comitia tributa*, either were assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized, that the commons had the preponderance; diese Institution gab den *tribunes their share in legislation*, those officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons.⦘

*Unter Republik* had die *consules* u. in their absence *the praetor power to convene the Senate* u. also to *hold the comitia*. Später das *office of Prätor – Prätor urbanus* (absorbed the functions of the old office des *Praefectus urbi*). *A judicial magistrate*, prototype of the modern judge, der Roman *»Prätor«*. – Bei Tod des Romulus die society *noch gentile*.

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## Part II. Ch. XIII. The institution of Roman Political Society.

*578 od. 576–533. Servius Tullius.* Seit Romulus röm. Gesellschaft gespalten in *Patricians*, constituting the *Populus*, u. *plebejans*, die *Plebs*; beide *persönlich frei* u. beide entered *the ranks* of the army; plebejans aber, nicht einbegriffen in *gentile society*, ausserhalb *the government*. Nach Niebuhr die *Existenz der plebs* als annerkannt *freie* u. *sehr zahlreiche Portion* der Bevölkerung nachweisbar bis zu reign des *Ancus Marcius* (640–618). Plebs excluded v. *office, comitia curiata, sacred rites der gentes* (v. intermarriage mit diesen). Zur Zeit des Servius numerous *plebs* fast so numerous wie *populus*; subject to military service, possessing families u. property. Die *Constitution der gentile organization schloss sie aus*; hence letztre musste fliegen.

*Entstehung der plebs*, i.e. v. *Personen not members of an organized gens, curia, tribe*. Adventurers who flocked to the new city from the surrounding tribes, war captives afterwards set free, unattached persons mingled with the gentes transplanted to Rome, would rapidly furnish such a class; ausserdem might happen that in filling up the 100 gentes of each tribe, fragments of gentes and gentes having less than a prescribed number of persons, were excluded. Aus dem *Epitheton der [senators of the] Luceres* „Fathers minorum gentium“ ersichtlich dass die old gentes reluctant ihre entire equality anzuerkennen. Nach filling up des 3d tribe mit der prescribed number of gentes the last avenue of admission closed, wonach die *Zahl der plebejan class* rasch anwachsend. *Niebuhr* läugnet, dass *clients part des plebejan* body.

*Dionys. II, 8 u. Plut. Vit. Romuli, XIII, 16* schreiben Romulus die *Einrichtung* (!) der *relation v. patron u. client* zu, ditto *Suetonius, Tiberius*, c. 1. (Alles, was diese 3 sagen, beweist gefällig nichts!) ⦗*Morgan’s* Behauptung, dass die *clients* v. Anfang an a *part of the plebejan body* – falsch, Niebuhr right.⦘

*Niebuhr* u. andre nehmen an dass der *entire populus were patricians*. – Nach *Dionysius* II, 8 (vgl. *Plut. , vit.* Romuli, XIII) fand Errichtung der *Patrician class vor Bildung des Senats statt*; war zusammengesetzt aus Personen ausgezeichnet durch Tapferkeit, birth (!) u. wealth. Danach blieben aber noch large class in den several gentes, die *keine Patricier*.

*Cic. de Rep. II, 12:* »Quum ille Romuli Senatus, *qui constabat ex optimatibus*, quibus ipse rex tantum tribuisset, ut *eos patres* vellet nominari, *patriciosque eorum liberos, tentaret* etc.«

*Liv. I, 8:* »*Patres* certe ab honore, *patriciique progenies eorum appellati*.«

Die Bildung der Senatoren aus chiefs der gens schliesst nur ein dass die gewählten *family chiefs* – und nur *eine family aus den vielen der gens* hatte ihr Haupt im Senat, bedingt nur, dass *diese Burschen Patres* u. nur *ihre progenies patricii*, aber nicht alle members jeder gens, also der *ganze populus* (im Gegensatz zu Plebs) wie *Niebuhr* meint. Unter den reges u. der *Republik individuals* created *patricians* by the government.

*Vellejus Paterculus* I, 8: »Hic centum homines electos, appellatosque *Patres, instar habuit consilii publici*. *Hanc originem nomen Patriciorum habet*.«

There could be no *patrician gens* u. no *plebejan gens*, obgleich ⦗notabene später, als gentile society abolished⦘ *particular families in one gens* could be *patrician* u. other *plebejan*. All the adult members of the *Fabian gens*, 306, were patricians; could either trace their *descent from senators* or to *some public act*, wodurch their *predecessors raised to patriciate*. Vor *Servius Tullius* Romans divided in *Populus u. Plebs*; nachher, namentlich *nach der Licinian legislation (367 B.C.)*, wodurch alle Staatswürden jedem civis zugänglich gemacht, alle freien Römer in *2 Klassen: Aristokratie* u. *Commonalty*; die ersteren bestanden aus *senators* u. *deren descendants*, mit denen, die eins der *3 curules offices (consul, praetor, curulis aedilis)* innegehabt u. deren Nachkommen; die *commonalty*, nun alle Roman *cives*; die gentile organization verfiel u. die old division nicht länger haltbar. Personen, die in der *ersten Periode* zum *Populus* gehört, gehörten in der 2ten zur *Aristokratie*, ohne Patricier zu sein. *Claudii u. Marcelli* 2 Familien der *Claudian gens*; die ersteren *patricii* (could trace their descent v. *Appius Claudius*), die *2ten Plebejer*.

Die *Patrician class* zahlreich; bei jeder Lücke *neuer Senator* gewählt, conferred patrician rank auf ihre Nachkommen; others v. Zeit zu Zeit zu patricians gemacht durch act of the state. (*Liv.* IV, 4)

*Schatten der alten Unterscheidung v. Populus u. Plebs* blieb: *»A plebe consensu populi* consulibus negotium mandatur.« *Liv. IV, 51.*

*Numa* (*717–679* B.C.), der Nachfolger des Romulus, tended to *traverse the gentes*, durch Eintheilung des Volks in Klassen (wie Theseus), some 8 in number, entsprechend to their arts u. trades.

*Plutarch. Numa c. 17*: » *Numa* bedachte nun, dass man auch *Körper*, die ursprünglich unmischbar u. spröde sind, *durch Stampfen* u. Zerstossen in Verbindung bringe, weil *kleine Theile sich eher vereinen*. Daher beschloss er dann die gesammte Menge in *mehre Theile* zu scheiden, u. durch *Hervorbringung neuer Verschiedenheiten jene erste grosse gleichsam in kleinere* zu zersplittern u. *eben dadurch aufzuheben*. Er theilte also das Volk *nach den Gewerben* in *Flötenspieler* (αὐλητῶν), *Goldarbeiter (χρυσοχόων)*, *Zimmerleute* (τεκτόνων), *Färber (βαφέων*), *Schuster* (σκυτοτόμων), *Gerber* (σκυτοδεψῶν), *Schmiede (χαλκέων)* u. *Töpfer* (κεραμέων). Die *übrigen Gewerbe* vereinigte er mit einander, u. bildete *aus allen zusammen eine Zunft*. Durch die Gemeinschaften, Zusammenkünfte u. gottesdienstlichen Feierlichkeiten, die er für jede Zunft nach Gebühr anordnete, brachte er es in der Stadt dahin, dass die *Unterscheidung zwischen Sabinern u. Römern, u. zwischen Bürgern des Tatius u. Bürgern des Romulus völlig aufgehoben wurde, so dass diese Absonderung eine Vereinigung* u. Verschmelzung Aller mit Allen bewirkte.« Da diese classes aber nicht invested mit den powers exercised by the gentes, the measure failed. ⦗Aber nach der Darstellung des Plutarch ’s handelt es sich um »Bürger des Romulus« (Latins) u. *Bürger* des Tatius (Sabiner); dies würde die *gentes* als hauptsächlich *Handwerktreibende* stempeln! wenigstens die in *der Stadt*.⦘

*Servius Tullius ’ Periode 576–533 B.C.* folgt closely der des Solon *(596 B.C.)* u. *vor der des Cleisthenes (509 B.C.)* Seine Constitution modeled nach der des Solon; was *in practical operation* bei Errichtung der Republik (509 B.C.). Die *Hauptchanges, setting aside the gentes* u. inaugurating *political society*, were: 1) *substitution of classes*, formed nach individual wealth; 2) *comitia centuriata*, the new popular assembly, statt *comitia curiata*, assembly der gentes; 3) *creation of 4 city wards*, circumscribed by metes and bounds, u. named as *territorial areas*, wo die *residents* of *each ward required to enroll their names and register their property*.

Solon divided the *whole people in 5 classes* nach *value of their property*, wovon effect *to concentrate in one class the wealthiest men of the several gentes*. *Property qualification* war für *1ste class 100,000* asses; *2t class* 75,000; *3t class* 50,000; *4t cl.* 25,000; *5t class* 11,000 asses. (Livy, I, 43) *Dionysius* fügt *6t class* hinzu, *consisting* of *one century, mit 1 vote*; composed of those *without property* or less than required for *admission in 5. class*; paid no taxes u. dienten nicht in Krieg. (*Dionys.* IV, 20) (einige andre Differences zwischen Dionysius u. Livius) *Jede class subdivided in centuries*, deren *Anzahl* willkührlich, ohne Rücksicht auf Personenzahl in der class, with *one vote to each century* in den *comitia*. So *1ste class* zählte *80 centuries*, hatte *80 votes* in the *comitia centuriata*; *2t class* 20 centuries, wozu *2 of artisans* attached, mit 22 votes; *3d class* 20 centuries mit 20 votes; *4th class* 20, wozu 2 centuries of *hornblowers* and *trompeters*, 22 votes; *5th class* of 30 centuries mit 30 votes. Ausserdem *Ritter* mit *18 centuries* u. ebensoviel votes. Dadurch *government*, soweit beeinflussbar durch die popular assembly, *comitia centuriata* – in *hands der 1sten class* u. *der equites*, hatten *zusammen 98 votes*, majority des whole. – Die *centuries jeder class* divided into *seniors*, über 55 Jahr, charged mit duty as soldiers of defending the city, u. *juniors, v. 17 Jahren bis 54 Jahr inclus.*, charged with external military enterprises. (Dionys. IV, 16) – Jede centurie *agreed upon its vote separately* when assembled in the comitia centuriata; in *taking a vote* upon any public question, *equites* called first, then the *1st class*. Stimmten sie überein in ihrem vote, then the *question decided*, u. die *übrigen centuries* nicht called *upon to vote*; wenn they disagreed, *2nd class* called upon u.s.f.

Die *Rechte der comitia curiata*, etwas erweitert, übertragen auf die *comit. centuriata; elected all officers* and *magistrates upon the nomination of the Senate; enacted or rejected laws proposed* durch letzteren; *repealed existing laws* auf *sein* Verlangen, wenn’s ihnen gefiel; *declared war auf seine recommendation*, aber *Senat schloss* Frieden ohne sie zu consultiren; an *appeal to the comitia centuriata in all cases involving life*; they *had no control* (die comit. centur.) *over finances*. – *Property, not numbers controlled the gvt.*

*Meetings of the comitia jährlich* held in *Campus Martius* für *Wahl v. Magistrates u. officers* u. zu andern Zeiten, wenn nöthig. Volk *assembled by centuries* u. by *classes under their officers, organized as an army (exercitus)*; centuries u. classes designed für *civil* u. *military organization*. Bei erster Musterung unter Servius Tullius *80,000* in *Waffen* im Campus Martius, jeder Mann in seiner century, jede Century in ihrer Klasse, jede Klasse besonders. (*Liv. I, 44, Dionys.*, der 84,700 zählt, IV. 22.)

*Jedes member einer Centurie* nun *civis Romanus*; dies das Hauptresultat.

Nach *Cicero, De Rep. II, 22* wählte Servius Tullius die *Equites* from the common mass of the people (langte sich die Reichsten heraus) u. divided the remainder into 5 classes.

*The property classes subserved the useful purpose of breaking up the gentes*, which had become *close corporations*, excluding the mass of the population. – The 5 classes, mit some modification of the manner of voting, remained to the end of the republic. *Servius Tullius* soll auch instituirt haben die *comitia tributa*, a separate assembly of each *local tribe* or ward, deren chief duties relating to the *assessment and collection of taxes* u. to furnishing *contingents of troops*. Später elected dies assembly die *tribunes* of the people.

*Einer der ersten acts des Servius* – der *Census*. *»Censum enim instituit, rem saluberrimam* tanto futuro imperio: ex quo *belli pacisque munia non viritim*, [ut ante,] sed pro *habitu pecuniarum* fierent.« *(Liv. I. 42.)* Jede Person hatte sich selbst to enroll *in ward* of his residence, with statement of amount of his property, geschah in Gegenwart von Censor; *the lists when completed furnished the basis upon which the classes were formed*. **Creation of 4 city wards gleichzeitig**, circumscribed by boundaries u. mit eignen Namen; such *Roman ward* a *geographical area*, mit a registry of citizens u. their property, a local organization, a tribune u. other elective offices u. with an assembly – aber nicht wie *Attic deme zugleich polit. body* mit complete self-government, elective magistracy, judiciary u. priesthood.

Dies *Roman ward* a nearer copy of the previous Athenian *naucrary*, die wahrscheinlich auch ihr model war. *Dionys.* IV, 14 sagt, dass nachdem Servius Tullius inclosed the *7 hills mit one wall*, he divided *the city in 4 parts* 1) *Palatina*, 2) *Suburra*, 3) *Collina*, 4) *Esquilina* (früher hatte die city 3 parts); sie hätten nun zu dienen (diese Theile) statt nach *φυλὰς τὰς γενικάς*, nach *φυλὰς τὰς τοπικάς*; setzte commanders über *jeden tribe*, as *phylarchs* u. *comarchs*, whom he directed to note what house each inhabited. Nach *Mommsen* hatte jeder dieser 4 levy districts to furnish the *4th part nicht nur of the force as a whole*, sondern *von jeder ihrer militair. Unterabtheilungen* u. *jede century* zählte *gleiche Zahl von Conscribirten from each region*, to merge all *distinctions of gentile* u. *local nature into one common* u. durch influence of military spirit to bind *metoeci* und *burgesses* into one people.

*Ebenso die Umgegend*, under the government of Rome, *organized* in *tribus rusticae*, nach einigen 26, nach andern 31, mit den 4 city tribus in einem Fall 30, im andern 35. These *townships did not become integral in the sense of participating in the administration of the government*.

The *overshadowing municipality of Rome made the centre of the State*.

Nach Einführung des new political system behielten die *comitia curiata* noch (ausser religiösen curia dreck, inaugurated certain priests –) bei das: they *conferred the imperium upon all the higher magistrates*, became in time a matter of form only. *After 1st Punic war* verloren sie alle Bedeutung u. fell soon in oblivion; ebenso die *curiae* – beide *superseded rather than abolished*; gentes blieben lang ins empire hinein, as a *pedigree u. a lineage*.

The *element of property*, which has controlled society to a great extent *during the comparatively short period of civilization*, gab mankind *despotism, imperialism, monarchy, privileged classes* u. finally *representative democracy*.

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## Pt. II. Ch. XIV. Change of Descent von Female to Male Line.

1) *Female Descent*: *Female ancestor* u. *her children (sons u. daughters); children of her daughters*, and of her *female descendants through females*, in perpetuity. (*Children of her sons*, and of her *male descendants*, through males were excluded.) Dies bildet archaic gens.

2) *Descent in male line:* Gens consists of a*supposed male ancestor* u. *his children*, together mit den *children of his sons* and of his *male descendants* through males in perpetuity.

*Bei change v. 1) zu 2)* blieben alle *present members der gens* Mitglieder derselben, nur in future *all children*, whose fathers belonged to the gens, should *alone remain in it u. bear the gentile name*, while the *children of the female members should be excluded*. This would not break or change the kinship or relations of the existing gentiles; but thereafter it would *retain in the gens the children it before excluded*, and *exclude those it before retained*.

*Solang descent in female line*: 1)*Marriage in the gens prohibited*; hence *children in an other gens than that of their reputed father*.

2) *Property and the office of chief hereditary in the gens:* thus *excluding children from inheriting the property or succeeding to the office of their reputed father*. – Sobald *change of condition* (durch Entwicklung v. individual property u. monogamy namentlich) such, dass diese *exclusions »ungerecht«* erschienen, – change of descent *effected*. ⦗*Private property* in *flocks* u. *herds* u. nachdem tillage *had led to the ownership of houses u. lands in severalty*.⦘ With *property accumulating in masses and assuming* permanent forms, and *with an increased portion of it held by individual ownership, descent in the female line* ⦗v. wegen inheritance⦘ certain of overthrow. *Change to descent in male line* would *leave the inheritance in the gens as before*, but it *would place children in the gens of their father* u. *at the head of the agnatic kindred*.

Probable, that when *descent changed to the male line*, or still earlier, *animal names for the gentes laid* aside and personal names substituted in their place. After this substitution, the *eponymous ancestor became a shifting person*.

The more celebrated Grecian gentes made the change of names; they *retained the name of the mother of their gentile father* and *ascribed his birth to her embracement by some particular god*. So *Eumolpus*, der eponymous ancestor der *Attic Eumolpidae*, was the *reputed son of Neptune u. Chione*.

*440. B.C. Herodot*: sagt v. den *Lycians* (von denen er erzählt, dass sie sprung from Creta, u. nach Lykia gewandert unter Führung des Sarpedon , dass „ihre customs partly *Cretan*, partly *Carian*“):

„Die *Lykier* haben eine *sonderbare Gewohnheit* worin sie abweichen von *jeder andern Nation in der Welt*. Frage einen Lykier *wer er ist* u. er antwortet indem er *seinen Eigennamen* giebt, den *seiner Mutter und so on in the female line*. Ferner, wenn eine *freie Weibsperson* einen *Mann* heirathet, der ein Sklave ist, so *sind ihre Kinder freie Bürger*; aber wenn ein *freier Mann ein ausländisch Weib heirathet*, oder cohabits *with a concubine*, selbst wenn er die first person im Staat ist, *the children forfeit all the rights of citizenship*.“

*Now cfr:* Wenn ein *Seneca-Iroquois* ein *fremdes* Weib heirathet, sind seine Kinder *aliens*; aber wenn eine *Seneca-Iroquois Weibsperson* einen *Fremden* heirathet, od. einen *Onondaga*, sind *ihre Kinder Iroquois* of the *Seneca tribe* u. of the *gens u. phratry ihrer Mutter*. Die Frau *überträgt ihre nationality u. her gens auf ihre Kinder*, whoever their father.

Folgt aus Herodot’s Stelle, dass die *Lykier* organized in *gentes* (of archaic form), hence *mit descent in female line*.

Die *aborigines v. Creta* (Kandia) waren *Pelasgian, Semitic u. Hellenic tribes, living locally* apart. Minos, der brother des Sarpedon, gilt als head der Pelasgians in Creta; die *Lykier* zu Herodot’s Zeit ganz hellenisirt – conspicuous *unter den Asiatic Greeks* for their advancement. Die *Insulation ihrer Vorfahren* auf Creta-Insel, vor ihrer migration in the legendary period to Lycia, mag erklären ihre *retention of the female line* in this late period.

„Etrusker ⦗nach *Cramer: Description of Ancient Italy* (dieser selbst quotes *Lanzi*)⦘, wie wir aus ihren Monumenten sehn, liessen ihre *Weiber* zu ihren Festen u. Banquets zu; sie *beschreiben ihre parentage u. family* invariably *with reference to the mother*, and *not the father*. Dieselben 2 customs noticed *von Herodot bezüglich der Lykier und Caunians* v. *Asia Minor*.“

*Curtius (Griech. Geschichte)* commenting on *Lycian, Etruskan u. Cretan descent in female line*, sagt: dies wurzle in den *primitive conditions of society*, als Monogamie noch nicht etablirt hinreichend to assure *descent on the father’s side*. Der Gebrauch erstreckt sich daher weit über *Lycian territory*; occurs heut noch *in Indien*; existirte unter *den alten Aegyptern*; mentioned by *Sanchoniathon* (p. 16, Orell); bei *Etruskans, Cretans*, who called their *fatherland* – *Motherland*. ⦗noch immer sagt jeder: *Mutterzunge*, Father*land*; die Sprache gehört immer noch der Mutter⦘ Die Stelle bei Herodot beweist nur, dass sich die custom of descent in female line von allen related to the Greeks u. am längsten unter den Lykiern erhalten … As life became more regulated, *relinquished* u. *naming children after their fathers* became *general in Greece. Cf. Bachofen , Mutterrecht, Stuttgart 1861.*

*Bachofen (Mutterrecht)* has collected u. discussed the evidence *of Mutterrecht* u. *Gyneocracy* unter *Lykiern, Cretern, Athenern, Lemniern, Aegyptern, Orchomenians, Locrians, Lesbians* u. unter *östlichen Asiatischen Nationen*. Dies aber setzt voraus – *gens in its archaic form*; diese would give *the gens of the mothers* the ascendency in the household. Die family – *wahrscheinlich schon in syndyasmian form* – noch environed *mit den remains of conjugal system of still earlier condition*. Such family – a married pair with their children – mit kindred families in *a communal household* wo die *several mothers u. ihre Kinder of the same gens*, the *reputed fathers* dieser children *of other gentes*.

*Common lands u. joint tillage* would *lead to joint-tenement houses and communism in living*; *gyneocracy* unterstellt für Entstehung – *descent in the female line* producirt . *Women entrenched in large households, supplied from common stores, in which their own gens largely predominated in numbers* – … When descent *changed to male line mit monogamian family the joint-tenement house displaced*, stellte in midst einer *rein gentile society* the wife and mother in *a single house* u. *separated her from her gentile kindred*.

*Bachofen* sagt v. *Cretan city* of *Lyktos*: diese Stadt wurde betrachtet als *lacedämonische Colonie* u. auch als *related to the Athenians*; war in beiden Fällen so *on the mother’s side, denn nur die Mütter waren spartan. Abkunft*. Die *Athenian Verwandschaft* geht zurück auf *Athenische Weiber* welche die *Pelasgian Tyrrhenians from Brauron promontory* enticed haben sollen. – Mit *descent in male line*, bemerkt treffend Morgan , würde das *lineage der women unberücksichtigt geblieben sein*; aber mit female line gaben die *Colonists their pedigrees through females only*.

*Monogamy unter Greeks* probably nicht *vor Upper Status of Barbarism*. Wie pragmatisch u. als echter deutscher Schulgelehrter Bachofen selbst die Sache auffasst, sichtbar aus folgendem passus:

„Denn *vor der Zeit des Kekrops* hatten die Kinder *nur eine Mutter, keinen Vater*; they *were of one line*. An keinen Mann ausschliesslich gebunden, brachte das Weib nur *spurious* (!) children zur Welt. *Kekrops* (!) machte (!) diesem Zustand der Dinge ein Ende; *brachte zurück* (!) die *lawless* (!) *union of sexes* zur *Exclusivität der Ehe, gab* den Kindern einen *Vater* (!) und *eine Mutter* (!) u. machte sie so from *unilateres – bilateres*.“ (machte sie *unilateres* in *male line of descent*!)

*Polybius XII, extract II*: „Die *Lokrier* selbst ⦗die *100 families of Locrians in Italy*⦘ haben mich versichert, dass ihre eignen traditions mehr dem Bericht des Aristoteles entsprechen als dem des Timäus. Geben davon folgende Beweise … alle *nobility of ancestry* ist unter ihnen *von Weibern* abgeleitet u. *nicht von Männern*. Die allein sind *noble*, die ihren Ursprung *von den 100 families ableiten*; diese families were noble unter den Locrians *vor ihrer Wanderung*; u. waren in der That dieselben von denen durch Loos 100 virgins taken, wie das Orakel befohlen hatte, u. die nach Troja gesandt wurden.“

Wahrscheinlich der hier erwähnte *Rang* (Adel) connected mit *office of chief of gens*, ennobled die *besondre Familie innerhalb der gens*, auf eines deren Glieder es conferred; dies implicirt *descent in the female line both as to persons u. office*; das office of chief *hereditary in the gens* u. *elective unter its male members in archaic times*; mit descent in *female line passes v. Bruder zu Bruder* u. von *Onkel zu Nephew (Schwesterssohn)*. Aber office stets passed through females, the eligibility der Person depending upon the *gens of his mother*, who *gave him connection with the gens* u. the defunct chief whose place he was to fill. Wo *office u. rank runs through females*, it *requires descent in the female line* for its explanation.

In *traditionary period der Greeks: Salmōneus u. Krētheus* own brothers, *Söhne des Aeolus*. Der erstere gab seine Tochter *Tyrō* in *Ehe ihrem Onkel*. Mit *Descent in male line Krētheus* u. *Tyrō* of the same gens, hätten nicht heirathen können; mit *descent in female line* Tyrō of *gens ihrer Mutter*, nicht ihres Vaters. Salmōneus also of *different gens* als Krētheus; die Heirath also within gentile usage. Der *mythische Character der Personen* gleichgültig, the *legend applies gentile usages* correctly; zeigt also hin auf *descent in female line* im hohen Alterthum *(griechischen)*.

*Nach der Zeit des Solon* konnte ein *Bruder seine Halbschwester heirathen*, wenn *sie born of different mothers*, nicht aber when born of *different fathers* and *same mother*. Mit descent in female line, they would be of *different gentes*; aber in *male descent line* – u. diese existirte damals faktisch – of *the same gens*, ihre Heirath daher verboten. ⦗*Dies also Ueberleben der alten Praxis, surviving the change of descent to the male line.*⦘ *Cimon* heirathete seine Halbschwester *Elpinice*, vom selben Vater, aber verschiednen Müttern. Im *Eubulides* des *Demosthenes* sagt *Euxithius*: »*ἀδελφὴν γὰρ ὁ πάππος (grandfather) οὑμὸς ἔγημεν οὐχ ὁμομητρίαν*« *(nicht von derselben Mutter)*. *Vgl. id. Eubulides, 24*.

*Descent in the female line presupposes the gens to distinguish the lineage*; war – ⦗wozu gar keine histor. evidence weiter nöthig, nachdem dies als *archaic form* entdeckt⦘ – ancient law der *Latin, Grecian u. other Graeco-Italian gentes*.

Annehmend Zahl of *registered Athenians zur Zeit Solon’s* = 60,000 u. dividing them equally unter den *360 Attic gentes*, gäbe average *von 160 persons to gens*. Die *gens was a great family* (nenne es *Geschlechtsfamilie*) of kindred persons, with *common religious rites, common burial place*, u., in general, *common lands*. *Intermarriage verboten.* Mit *change of descent to male line, rise of monogamy, exclusive inheritance in the children* u. *appearence of heiresses* way gradually prepared *for free marriage regardless of gens*, except *prohibition für certain degrees naher Blutsverwandtschaft. Marriages* began in *the group, alle males u. females of which* – *ausschliesslich der Kinder* – *were joint husbands u. wives*; aber *husbands u. wives* were of *different gentes*; it ended in *marriage between single pairs* with an *(officially) exclusive cohabitation*.

*Das Turanian Verwandschaftssystem (Asien, Africa, Australien)* ⦗entsprechend dem *Ganowánian* in *America*⦘ muss auch unter *Greek* u. *Latin tribes* in selber Entwicklungsperiode geherrscht haben. Ein *Characterzug desselben*: die *Kinder von Brüdern* sind *selbst Brüder u. Schwestern*, als solche nicht intermarriable; *die Kinder von Schwestern* in demselben Verhältniss, *unter selber prohibition*. ⦗Wenn *Bachofen* diese Punaluan Ehen *lawless* findet, so fände Mann aus dieser Periode die *meisten jetzigen Ehen* zwischen nahen und fernen Cousins, sei es väterlicher, sei es mütterlicher Seite, *blutschänderisch*, nämlich als *Ehen zwischen blutsverwandten* Geschwistern⦘ Dieses erklärt die Legende der *Danaiden* (worauf *Aeschylus* seine *»Schutzflehenden«* gegründet).

*Danaus u. Aegyptus waren Brüder* u. descendants der Argivischen *Io*. *Danaus*, von different wives hatte *50 Töchter* u. *Aegyptus 50 Söhne*; letztere sought the first in marriage; diese nach *Turanian System* – *Brüder und Schwestern*, unverheirathbar. Wenn damals *descent in male line*, hätten sie auch zur *selben gens* gehört, andres Heirathobstacle. Die *50 Danaustöchter* – Danaiden – *flohen von Aegypten nach Argos*, um dem unlawful und blutschänderischen wedlock zu entfliehen. Dies event foretold to Io von Prometheus. *(Aeschylus 853)*

*In den Schutzfliehenden des Aeschylus* erklären die Danaiden den *kindred Argives* (in Argos), sie seien nicht vebannt worden von Aegypten, sondern:

nicht wegen Blutthat (Mord) durch Volksverbannenden Beschluss verurtheilt *sondern aus Männerfurcht*, die *blutsverwandte u. unheilige Ehe der Söhne des Aegyptus verschmähend*. — »Δίαν δὲ λιποῦσαι *Χθόνα σύγκορτον Συρίᾳ φεύγομεν*, *Οὔτιν’ ἐφ’αἵματι δημηλασίᾳ Ψήφῳ πόλεως γνωσθεῖσαι*, *ἀλλ’αὐτογενήτων φυξάνορα Γάμο Αἰγύπτου παίδων ἀσεβῆ τ’ ὀνοταζόμεναι*.« *(Aesch. Suppl. v. 5 sq).* — *σύγχορτον = conterminam, da χόρτος* (hortus, curtis) auch = terminus. So *»χόρτος αὐλῆς, ὁ τῆς αὐλῆς ὅρος*, die *Grenze des Hofes«* – So *Eurip. Andromache v. 17 »σύγχορτα ναίω πεδία«* Ich bewohne *angrenzende Felder (Ebnen)*.

(Die Stelle scheint verdorben *grammatice*, sieh *Schütz „Aeschylus“ vol. 2*, p. 378.)

Nachdem sie den casus der Hiketiden gehört, beschlossen die *Argiver in Council* ihnen *Schutz zu gewähren*, was implicirt Existenz von Verbot solcher Ehen u. the validity of their objection. Zur Zeit, wo diese Tragödie aufgeführt in Athen, *erlaubte u. forderte selbst das Athenische Gesetz marriage between the children of brothers* im case of *heiresses u. orphans*, obgleich diese Regel auf solche Ausnahmsfälle beschränkt scheint.

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## Pt. II. Ch. XV. Gentes in other tribes of the Human family.

*Celtic branch der Aryan family (ausser denen of India)* hält länger als irgend andre die *Gentile Organization* bei; – *Scottish Clan* in den *Highlands of Scotland* – *feuds u. blood revenge, localization by gentes, use of lands in common, fidelity of clansman to his chief* und *members of the Clan to each other*. – *Irish Sept.* – ⦗Celtisch: *Villein-communities on French Estates*.

Andrerseits: *Phis or Phrara of Albania*; die *Familiengemeinschaften in Dalmatien u. Croatien*.

Die *Sanscrit »Ganas« (»gentes«)*.

*Germans:* were in *Upper Status of Barbarism*, when first known to the Romans; konnten kaum mehr developed ideas of government haben als Römer u. Griechen, wenn first known.

*Tacitus*. *De Moribus Germanorum , c. 2.* »*Celebrant carminibus antiquis (quod unum apud illos memoriae et annalium genus est) Tuistonem* deum, terra editum, et *filium Mannum*, originem gentis conditoresque. *Manno tris filios* adsignant, e quorum nominibus *proximi Oceano* – *Ingaevones*, *medii* – *Hermiones*, *ceteri* – *Istaevones* vocentur. Quidam autem, licentia vetustatis, plures deo ortos, *pluresque ›gentis‹ (tribe) appellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos, Vandalios* adfirmant …. Ceterum *Germaniae vocabulum recens et nuper additum*: quoniam, qui primi Rhenum transgressi *Gallos expulerint*, ac nunc *Tungri*, tunc *Germani* (*Wehrmannen*, guerriers) vocati sint: ita *›nationis‹ nomen, non gentis, evaluisse* paulatim, ut omnes, primum a victore ob metum, mox a se ipsis invento nomine, Germani vocarentur.«

(*natio* muss hier = confederacy of tribes sein; jeder *tribe* = *gens* segmentated in mehre gentes. »*Suevi* majorem Germaniae partem obtinent, *propriis* adhuc nationibus nominibusque discreti«. *Tacit. Germ. c. 38*; die *nationes* sind hier verschiedene *näher related tribes* od. auch *tribes* (wie z. B. Seneca-Iroquois etc), auf keinen Fall gentes.)

⦗*Lipsius* interpretirt: »Die, qui transgressi primitus Rhenum sint, sind eben das Volk, das jetzt *Tungri*, damals *Germani* genannt wurde. Dieser (der Name *›Germani‹*) Particularname einer *einzigen Natio*, nach u. nach *auf alle* übertragen.« Meint umgekehrt: »ita *nationis nomen*, non *gentis* evaluisse paulatim«: der Name prevailed nach u. nach, *nicht als der einer gens* (hier für erweiterte gens = tribe), sondern als *nationis nomen*, wo *natio* das ganze deutsche Volk, alle tribes zusammen ist.⦘

Dass *alte Gesänge* ihre einzigen *historical account (»memoriae«)* und *Annalen*, so fanden es die *Spanier* bei the village Indians . *Eginhartus*, *„Vita Caroli Magni“:* »Barbara et antiquissima carmina, quibus veterum regum actiones et bella canebantur, scripsit, memoriaeque mandavit.«

*Jornandes, „De Gothis“:* »In priscis eorum carminibus poene historico ritu recolitur etc.«

*Tacit. lib. II. Annal. de Arminio:* »*Caniturque* adhuc barbaras apud gentes.«

*Julianus* in *„Antiochico“* nennt diese cantus »*ἄγρια μέλη* (agrestia carmina), *παραπλήσια ταῖς κλαγγαῖς τῶν τραχὺ βοώντων ὀρνίθων* (similia clangoribus avium aspere clamantium).«

Tacitus l.c. (German.) c. 3 spricht dann v. ihren *Kriegsgesängen*: »Sunt illis *haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu*, (durch deren *delivery*: Art sie auszuschreien) [quem *Barditum* vocant,] accendunt animos« . *barditus für barītus* vom old German *bar, baren*, raise the voice: Tacitus confounds the *battle cry* mit dem *battle song*.

*Tac. German. c. 5.* beschreibt: »*Terra* … aut *silvis horrida, aut paludibus foeda*: … *satis* (ablat. von sata) *ferax* (fruchtbar an Korn): *frugiferarum arborum impatiens*: *pecorum fecunda* (abondant en bétail), sed plerumque *improcera* (nicht tall, klein). ne *armentis* (Ochsen) quidem suus honor (das *Horn*), aut gloria frontis. *numero gaudent* (de nombre de domage). *eaeque solae et gratissimae opes sunt* (sind ihr einziger Reichthum, den sie am meisten schätzen) … *possessione et usu* (Edelmetallen) haud perinde afficiuntur. (*haud perinde* nicht gleich den Römern, nicht so sehr als –) Est videre apud illos *argentea vasa*, legatis et principibus eorum muneri data, non in alia vilitate, quam quae *humo* (Erde, Lehm, Thon) finguntur: quamquam *proximi*, (die an den *röm. Grenzen Wohnenden*) *ob usum commerciorum, aurum et argentum in pretio habent, formasque quasdam nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eligunt*: **interiores** **simplicius** **et antiquius** **permutatione mercium utuntur**. Pecuniam probant veterem, *et diu notam, Serratos* (von *serra = Säge*, waren nämlich so indentirt), *Bigatosque*. (v. *biga*, hatten empreinte d’un char attelé de deux chevaux) *Argentum* quoque magis quam aurum sequuntur, nulla affectione animi, sed quia *numerus argenteorum* (argentei numi, silver coins) *facilior usui est promiscua ac vilia mercantibus*.«

*Tac. Germ. c. 7:* »*Reges* (die chiefs of the tribes), *ex nobilitate* (i.e. aus gens, i.e. aus more illustrious family of a gens u. mehr prominent gens), *duces (the chief-warriors) ex virtute* sumunt. (wie die *Iroquois*) Nec regibus infinita aut libera potestas; et *duces exemplo potius quam imperio* … admiratione praesunt.«

C. XI »De minoribus rebus principes consultant; de *majoribus omnes* etc.« *(see das weitere)*

C. XII »*Licet apud concilium accusare quoque*, et discrimen capitis intendere. … *Eliguntur in iisdem conciliis et principes, qui jura per pagos* (Gaue) *vicosque* (bourgades) reddunt. *Centeni singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et auctoritas*, adsunt.«

XX »*Sororum filiis idem apud avunculum* (oncle), qui *apud patrem* honor. *Quidam sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum sanguinis arbitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt, tamquam ii* (ziehn die nephews den Söhnen vor), et *animum firmius, et domum latius teneant. Heredes tamen successoresque sui cuique liberi:* et *nullum testamentum*. Si liberi non sunt, proximus gradus in possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi.«

*Caesar de bello Gallic. VI, c. 22* »*Agriculturae non student: majorque pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, carne consistit*; neque quisquam *agri modum certum, aut fines habet proprios*; sed *magistratus* ac *principes* in annos singulos *gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt*, quantum, et quo loco visum est, *agri adtribuunt, atque anno post alio transire cogunt*. Ejus rei multas adferunt causas, ne assidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent; ne *latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant*; ne *adcuratius*, ad frigora *atque aestus vitandos, aedificent; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas*; qua ex re factiones, *dissensionesque* nascuntur; ut *animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat*.«

*ib. c. XXIII:* »*Civitatibus maxima laus* est, *quam latissimas circum se vastatis finibus solitudines habere*. Hoc proprium virtutis existimant, *expulsos agris finitimos cedere, neque quemquam prope audere consistere; simul hoc se fore tutiores arbitrantur, repentinae incursionis timore sublato*. Quum bellum civitas aut inlatum defendit, aut infert; *magistratus, qui ei ei bello praesint*, ut vitae necisque habeant potestatem, deliguntur. In *pace, nullus est communis magistratus,* sed *principes regionum atque pagorum inter suos jus dicunt, controversiasque minuunt*.« Die *principes regionum u. pagorum* – die *Sachem* – sind nicht die *war-chiefs*, sondern *civil chiefs* wie bei Indians; für *den Krieg* werden sie gewählt, wie dort ditto. ⦗Dies zu Caesar’s Zeit⦘

*Caesar* spricht oben von *»gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierint«* die Aecker jährlich vertheilt von den principes.

*Tacit. Germ.*, VII, wo er von Armeeformation spricht: »nec *fortuita conglobatio turmam* (Reiterschwadron) aut *cuneum* (Infanteriekeil) facit, sed *familiae et propinquitates*«; hier tritt schon mehr *familia* hervor, aber bei *Cäsar* ist diese selbst bestimmt als gens.

ib. XXVI »*Fenus agitare*, et *in usuras extendere ignotum*: ideoque magis servatur quam si vetitum esset. *Agri* (les terres), pro numero *cultorum* (en raison du nombre der Bebauer \ *cultor*, des bras), *ab universis* (par toutes les peuplades) *per vices* (successivement) occupantur, quos mox inter se, *secundum dignitatem*, (bei *Cäsar noch gleich*), partiuntur; *facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant. arva* (*arable field*, cultivated land) *per annos mutant:* et *superest ager*. nec enim cum ubertate et amplitudine soli *labore contendunt*, ut *pomaria conserant* (so dass sie planteraient des vergers), et *prata separent* (od. feraient enclore les prairies), et *hortos rigent* (od. arroseraient des jardins): *sola terrae seges imperatur* (Ils ne demandent à la terre que du blé).«

Die *Mark und Gaueintheilung* (pagus) scheinen groups of settlements associated with reference to military levies; *transitional stages*, diese organizations, between a gentile and a political system, the grouping of the people still resting on consanguinity.

Nach der *form des statement* bei Caesar scheint die family *syndyasmian gewesen zu sein*.

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[^lic]: Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben.