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Title: Heft XI (1880–1881): Exzerpte aus W. Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain. I (Tertiärzeit, Paläolithikum, Neolithikum)
Description: Marx’ Exzerpte aus William Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain and his Place in the Tertiary Period (London 1880), im Heft XI, erster Teil: die Säugetiere des Tertiärs und des Pleistozäns, der Mensch der Flussablagerungen und der Höhlenmensch, die neolithische Kultur und die iberische Bevölkerung der britischen Inseln.
Author: Karl Marx
Date: 1880
URL: https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/originales/1880%20Heft%20XI.%20Exzerpte%20aus%20Boyd%20Dawkins%2C%20Early%20Man%20in%20Britain.%20I
---


*Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).[^lic] [Traducción al español](https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/1880%20Cuaderno%20de%20extractos%20XI.%20Extractos%20de%20Boyd%20Dawkins%2C%20el%20hombre%20primitivo%20en%20Gran%20Breta%C3%B1a.%20I.%20Del%20Terciario%20al%20Neol%C3%ADtico)*

## W. Boyd Dawkins: Early Man in Britain, London 1880.

»*Affen* jetzt nicht in the *habit of making stone implements or of cutting bones*, although *they use stones for cracking nuts*«, aber »it *does not follow that the extinct apes*« ⦗z. B. der *Meiocene period*, wie Professor *Gaudry* (»Les enchainements du *Monde animal*« p. 241) behauptet von den *chipped flints and the cut rib*, die ersteren gefunden durch Abbé Bourgeois in *the mid Meiocene strata zu Thenay* u. die letztere (a notched fragment of a rib of an extinct kind of *manatee* (Halitherium)) found at *Pouancé* by M. *Delaunay* – they might have been the work of the *Dryopithecus* , or the great anthropoid ape, then living in France⦘ »*were equally ignorant, because some extinct animals are known to have been more highly organised than any of the living members of their class*. The *Secondary reptiles possessed attributes not shared* by their degenerate *Tertiary successors*. The *Deinosaurs* u. *Theriodonts had structural peculiarities now only met with in the birds and the mammalia*.« (p. [67–]69) *W. Boyd Dawkins: Early Man in Britain. London 1880.*

»It seems very likely that *horns* ⦗für ox⦘ were *originally a mere sexual character peculiar to the males*, and *transferred* ultimately, like other sexual characters, *to the females*. This was brought about *before the beginning of* the *Pleistocene age, since all oxen of that era possessed horns*.« (87) Daher so leicht in kurzer Zeit »the horns have been *bred out of some of the domestic cattle*, by *selection* carried on through a few generations, and our *polled cattle* may be looked upon as *a reversion to an ancestral type*«. (l. c.) In the *lower Meiocenes* I have *failed to meet with evidence that the deer possessed any antlers*. (89)

*The disappearance of the apes from Europe at the close of the pleiocene age is one of the most important facts to be recorded in the history* of *the mammalia*. (90)

The *family of lemurs* made its appearance both in *Europe and America in the Eocene*; *the apes*, or *Simiadae, in the Meiocene*. (90)

*Pottery* was *unknown in Europe* in the *Pleistocene*. (92) 21 fossil mammalia have been recently proved by Dr. Forsyth Major to have inhabited *Tuscany in the Pleiocene age*: of these *there is only one species*, the *hippopotamus, now alive* on the earth. … *the arrival of one solitary living species marks the dawn of that order of nature to which man belongs*. (92, 93)

In the *Pleistocene period* *… new mammals appear belonging for the most part to living species … their remains* are *associated with human implements … show that man was a member of the Pleistocene fauna*. (94) Die Pleistocene *mammalia found in the deposits of rivers and in ossiferous caverns*. (l. c.) Von den *Pleiocene species* gehören alle *ausser* *2* den *extinct* an; von der *Pleistocene* – 77 species – *22 extinct, 55 living*. (95) *Von den 8 survivals der Pleiocene period während der Pleistocene* – nur *eine lebende*: *Hippopotamus amphibius* ⦗african hippopotamus⦘. In der *Pleistocene era* – von den *55 living species* leben jetzt 33 in der gemässigten Zone; u. endlich the *man of the river deposits, or the River-drift man*. ([95,] 98, 99)

*Arctic species* – living *in der Pleistocene era* 8. (l. c.) Dazu (zu den *arctic species*) auch zu rechnen the *Cave-man*, jetzt *represented by Eskimos*, differed from the Palaeolithic *man of the river deposits* probably in race, and certainly in culture. (100)

Ausserdem newcomers in *Pleistocene era* u. now living in the *cold climate of the mountains not far removed from the snow line*, i. e. *Snowy vole, Alpine marmot, Chamois, Ibex*. (4) [100, 101] Ferner *8 still living species now found in hot climates*. (p. 102, 103[, 104]) When man omitted, *the groups of animals in the Pleistocene era thus:*

| a) | Survivals from Pleiocene. | living species (1) | Extinct (7) |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| b) | New living species: | α) temperate (34) | β) Northern (8) | γ) Of Mountains (4). | δ) Of hot countries (8) |  |
| c) | New extinct species (15) |  |  |  |  | Total: 77 species. [109] |

There are none *(caverns) older than the mid Pleistocene times*. (143) ⦗»although *caverns* must have existed in all ages of the earth’s history«⦘ (143)

Aus *mid Pleistocene age* v. *palaeolithic implements found*: *simple flake*; [163] dagegen:

in *the late pleistocene river-beds*: *the flake*; the *chopper* (Hackmesser) or *pebble roughly chipped to an edge on one side*; *the hâche* (Axt, Beil), or *oval pointed implement intended for use without a handle*; *an oval or rounded form with* a *cutting edge all round*, which may have been used in handle; *a scraper for preparing skins*; endlich *pointed flints used for boring*; savages like *the native Australians*; living by *hunting*; he *fashioned the stones* happening to be within his reach, – *flint, quartzite or chert* – in the shallows of the rivers, as they were wanted, *throwing them away after they had been used*. Daher the *large numbers met with in certain spots*, wie zu *Brandon u. Thetford in Suffolk* ; a *nomad hunter*, ignorant of the *art of grinding his stone tools to a sharp edge*. (163)

*Selber casus in Frankreich, shown by* *the researches of Boucher de Perthes* u. *Rigollot* in the *fluviatile strata of the valley of the Somme at Amiens u. Abbeville*. (p. 163, 64) Discoveries der *letzten 20 J. ähnlicher implements as far south as the deposits of the Garonne near Toulouse*; man folgte den animals in their migrations; he must have found game in great abundance in the *well-watered lowlands and round the numerous lakes, now covered by the North Sea and the English and Irish Channels*. (164) Some traces of this hunter’s present, durch *implements* found in the gravels of *Manzanares* (near Madrid) (wedge-shaped instrument von *»Madras«* form), *ovate instrument* zu *Gabbiano (Abruzzo)* ; similar instruments near *Megalopolis* (Peloponnes) from beds of sand, with bones of the great pachyderms. (l. c.) Ditto traces of *Riverdriftmen* in *Africa*, *Palestina* u. *Indien* mit entsprechenden implements. (p. 165)

### [Ch. VII. The Cave-man and the Advance in Culture]

⦗Vom selben Dawkins: *„Cave-Hunting.* *1875* ⦘ [175]

Die eigentlichen *cavemen* später u. höher entwickelt als die *River-Drift men*. Bei beiden *No Pottery*. *No domestic animals.* “ *Implement making u. Sewing bei Cavemen*. [199–210] The occupations which centred then, as now, *round the hearth*, were for men the *manufacture of articles for the chase*, and for *the women* the *preparation of food and clothing*. *Flint and chert pebbles* were collected and fashioned into various articles near the fires: into *spearheads, arrow-heads, flakes, borers, and saws for cutting antlers and bones*; – *into needles*, and *harpoons*. The *skins of the wild animals* were prepared for *clothing and other purposes, and sewn together with a thread of reindeer sinews*; wahrscheinlich dress *duty der women*. Some of *the outlines incised on the antlers* in the *caves of Auvergne* represent the *skin stretched out after it had been removed from the body of the animal, the incision being made, as at the present time, from the lower jaw to the tail*, and the legs and tail being preserved. *The fashioning of wooden handles* for the implements *with their imperfectly edged tools* must have occupied *a large portion of the time of the men in the intervals of hunting*. (210, 11) The *hunters were armed with spears* tipped with flint and bone, with *daggers of reindeer antler*, some bearing *beautifully carved handles*. Sie leben meist auf *reindeer, horses,* *ursus* etc, aber, wenn opportunity, *attacked* also *animals living in the sea, seals, whales, walruses*. [212–218] *Dress and ornaments:* painted probably their faces with *red oxide of iron*, lumps of which found in the *English, French and Swiss caves*. Their *clothes* made of the *furs of reindeers, bisons, horses etc sewn together with sinews* like those of the Eskimos; *their arms and hands protected by long gloves with 3 or 4* fingers. Wore *amulets* u. *necklaces* made of *perforated shells* (fossil and recent), of *bone, ivory u. teeth*. [211, 212] *Fowling* (Vogeljagd). [218, 219] *Fishing*. [219, 220] *Engraving* (*upon bone*, *antler*, and more rarely upon *ivory and stone* ) the hunting scenes, resp. animals, which most vividly impressed themselves upon their memory u. zwar diese *faculty of representing animals wonderfully developed* . [220] ⦗weit mehr als bei ihren *neolithic successors*⦘ Ebenso *sculpture* in Verfertigung von *handle of dagger (cave of Laugerie Basse)* of reindeer antler etc. [223]

*The ivory* used *in the sculptures and engravings* derived from the *tusks* of *the mammoth*, and the sharpness of the outlines implies that it was used when fresh. Bedenkt man the rudeness of their materials, so die accuracy ⦗u. grace u. liveliness⦘ womit sie represented the figures more prominently before them in their daily life *most extraordinary*; unter uncivilised peoples nowadays nur zu vergleichen with the artistic representations der Eskimos. [223, 224] A *human tooth*, found in the cave of *Plas Newydd* ist *only piece of human frame of late Pleistocene age found in Great Britain*; dagegen: Human remains in the *Cave of Duruthy* ⦗situated on a rocky promontory of *nummulitic limestone* near *Sorde, Western Pyrénées*, overlooking the junction of the *gave d’Oleron* and *gave de Pau*, 2 tributaries of *the Adour*, and is hollowed in the nummulitic limestone⦘, explored *1874* by *L. Lartet* u. *Chaplain-Duparc* . Nur in dem upper part des untersten layer of red earth with *flintflakes u. fragments of charcoal* ist a *skull of Palaeolithic* age; dabei *necklace*; dann folgt dicke *accumulation of refuse*, of broken bones of horses, oxen, stag and reindeer, large quantities of ashes, and various *flint implements* of the *Palaeolithic types*; darüber a thick talus, etc. Unter large Steinen, fallen from the cliff verborgen *a sepulchral vault, contained numerous skulls and skeletons*; deren *Neolithic age* bewiesen durch type der implements, vor allem auch rude *fragments of pottery* ⦗das *necklace* bei dem *palaeolithischen Kopf* (ohne skeleton) beweist dass die *cavemen* in habit of killing *lions* u. *bears*, the teeth mostly adorned with most interesting engravings⦘. [226–228]

#### No interments proved to be of Palaeolithic age.

The *river-drift implements in the caves of Cresswell Crags*, of *Kent’s Hole*, and of the *Grotte de l’Eglise* are found *in the strata below those with the implements of the Cavemen*, also lebten *River-drift men* in France u. Britain vor den *Cavemen* ⦗u. zwar, wie nachgewiesen, ungemessne ages zuvor; sind jetzt auch extinct⦘ Obgleich sie einzelne *einfache forms* v. *implements gemein* haben – wie the flake, scraper u. hammerstone – die *implements der cavemen* viel höher stehend u. *im Ganzen verschiedner Art*. The *river-drift men* wandered als hunters über ganz Europa *südlich v. Norfolk*, liessen traces in *Spanien, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, ganz Indien*; the *cavemen* are *restricted* to the area extending *from the Alps and Pyrénées as far north as Derbyshire u. Belgium u. have not yet been found farther east than Poland u. Styria* … the *River-drift men belong to the southern group of Mammalia*, while the Cavemen to the northern, wie *reindeer, musksheep* etc. Die *discoveries der letzten 20 Jahre* *seem* *to confirm the identification der cavemen mit den Eskimos*. [230–233]

Im *pleistocene age* no *trace of pottery* or *spinning*, of *domestic animals* or cultivated seeds or fruits. Wandering feral life. [244]

### [Ch. VIII] Neolithic Civilisation: Prehistoric farmer, and herdsmen.

*Prehistoric period*, alles *zwischen Pleistocene age* u. the *beginning of history*; to it belong *most of the alluvia* and the *peat-bogs*; u. die contents gewisser caverns characterised by *the presence of the wild mammalia now living in Europe* etc. *Nur eins von allen damals lebenden mammals extinct, the Irish elk.* Dies *neolithic age* – or that of *polished stones*, with the *stocks of the more important domestic animals*, and many *of the cultivated seeds u. fruits*. [247]

Die *submerged forests* dieser Periode (neolithic) angehörig, weil present animals originally domestic, and introduced by the Neolithic tribes, *the Celtic shorthorn and the sheep or goat* u. die absence der Pleistocene mammalia. (254, 55) Dies Land – wozu dieser forestgrowth belongs – nicht zu confound *with the older surface*, nearly at the same horizon, and *containing* the *remains of the mammoth*, wie at St. Audries, near Watchet, in *Holyhead Harbour*, and off the *coast of Yarmouth*; Noch weniger mit *dem noch älteren* Land surface under *the boulder clay of Norfolk and Suffolk*, wo *discovered the southern Elephant* etc; the *southern elephant* lived in Europe *vor* dem *Mammuth* u. das *Mammuth extinct vor* der *introduction of domestic animals*. [255]

» *The forests and morasses* would probably cause the *Prehistoric climate to be more damp* than that experienced in Britain since the dawn of history; while the *larger area of land* would *produce a greater contrast between the temperature of summer and winter*.«

Nach *James Geikie* : „*no island of the Orkney or Shetland groups can boast the presence of any natural trees deserving of the name.* … And *yet the mosses and sunk forests of those regions abound with fallen trees*, many of which *equal in thickness* to the body of a man.“ Zur Lebenszeit dieser „buried trees“ – *the land stood at a higher level, and the neighbouring ocean at a greater distance*. Ebenso mit den *„Inner and outer Hebrides“* u. *„all the maritime regions of Scotland“*. (255, 56) Dasselbe folgt aus den „facts disclosed by the *mosses of Ireland and England*. On the *coasts of France and Holland – peat dips deep under* the sea; and along those *bleak maritime regions of Norway*, wo jezt kaum a *pine-tree* grows, we find *peat mosses* mit *remains of fullgrown trees*, nur met with in districts much *farther removed von influence der See*.“

Aus der *great thickness des bark der Scotch firs in the buried forests* schliesst Geikie auf *viel kälteres Clima* als jezt, more like *that of* the *wooded regions of Canada* als deren des jetzigen Deutschlands, etc. (256, 57)

»Die *mammalia die Great Britain u. Ireland* bewohnten in der *Prehistoric Period* 3erlei: 1) *wild species surviving from the Pleistocene age*; 2) *species introduced under the care of man*; 3) *domestic animals reverted to a wild state*.« (257)

*Domestic Animals of the Prehistoric Period:* *dog, Horse, Sheep, Goat, Shorthorn, Hog.*

*Wild animals:* *Man; Beaver; Hare; Alpine Hare; Rabbit; Water Rat; Wild Cat; Otter; Marten; Badger; Brown Bear; Grisly Bear; Wolf; Fox; Horse, Roe; Stag; Elk; Irish elk; Reindeer; Urus; Wild Boar.* [261, 262]

*Neolithic:* *Hut Circles.* The contents of these *pits* ⦗at *Fisherton, near Salisbury* f.i.⦘ or „hut circles“ ⦗ancient habitations dating as far back in this country as the *Neolithic age*, and in use, as proved by the discoveries at Standlake u. at Brent Knoll, *near Burnham*, as late as *the time of the Roman occupation*⦘ u. a. *Spindle-Whorl* of burnt clay ⦗also *Spinning*⦘, *two dressed lumps of chalk with holes drilled in them* … weights … used to give *tension* to *the warp threads in weaving*, like those found in the *Swiss pile-dwellings*. Two *curious combs, 6 inches long*, with short thick teeth and long handles *were used in weaving*; *a bone needle* with drilled eye implies *sewing*. *Fragments of pottery*, not turned in the lathe, plain, or ornamented with incised curves, right lines, or lines of dots – *potter’s art*; were also *cultivators of the ground*, … a cast of a *grain of wheat* found *in the clay* which had formed a portion of the cover of one of these pits; *2 concave stone grain-rubbers* or *„mealing stones“ for grinding corn*; the remains of the animals in the pits belong to wild and domestic species; *this form of subterranean habitations is still used by native tribes in the Interior of Africa* . [266–268]

*Log Houses in Ireland.* Model preserved (in Museum of the Royal Irish academy) of a *log hut*, discovered 1833 in *Drumkelin bog, Inver, Donegal*; in diesem Haus gefunden a *»stone celt«* *(Achse)* ; im ground floor, *ausser der stone axe* – a *grindstone* (*hollowed* in the centre by rubbing) u. … remains of fireplace (wozu led a paved causeway) composed of slabs of freestone, at 14 yards’ distance from the house etc. Dies house u. the surrounding woodland growth of bog-willow, ash, and oak, lay buried under *a depth of 14 feet below the surface of the bog*. It is the *only example* of a *»wooden« cabin of the Neolithic age* which is on record … is a type of *one of the forms of habitations* wo timber was abundant, and where *stone* was not at hand for building *circular* or *beehive huts* like the Scotch burghs. The neolithic inhabitants of Britain *also used Caves* for habitation, such as those of North Wales etc. (269–271)

*Polished Stone, Bronze* and *Iron* od. *Neolithic, Bronze, Iron*. ⦗*Polishing of Stone* distinguishes at the outside, the *first* or *neolithic phase of the Prehistoric period from the palaeolithic.* [247, 248]

»At *the close of the pleistocene age*, the *valleys which united Britain to North France, Germany and Scandinavia as well as to Ireland*, were gradually *depressed beneath the sealevel*; *and the North Sea and Brit. Channel, the Irish Sea and the Western Atlantic coastline* generally became very much as we find them now. *An examination of the submerged forests and peatbogs* proves that the *downward movement had not ceased until a late period in the Neolithic age*.« (p. 248)

»The *sharp line of demarcation between the two* ⦗the *Pleistocene period* and *the Prehistoric with its three phases neolithic, bronze*, iron⦘ is to be noticed *in almost every river valley*, *where both are close together*; the *Pleistocene fluviatile strata* occurring in *various levels*, either *above or below* the *present level of the stream*, while the *Prehistoric deposits* consist of alluvia *close to the present level of the stream*, or of *subaërial accumulations of loam* and the like, the *result of the rain-wash, covering the lower* grounds like a mantle. … A *line of demarcation is equally clear in the caverns* wo die *Pleistocene accumulations are generally mapped off from those of the Prehistoric age by a layer of stalagmite*, sometimes of considerable thickness.« (263, 64)

»Die *homesteads (neolithic)* lagen in *clusters in the forests* – eh wir zu ihnen kommen *herds of goats and flocks of horned sheep*, … *troop of horses or small short-horned oxen* … od. *swineherd tending the hogs in their search after roots* … *large dogs* ⦗die im Nothfall auch gegessen werden⦘, used as guardians of the flocks *against bears, wolves or foxes* and *for hunting the wild animals*. At last, on *emerging into the clearing* – a little *plot of flax* or small- *eared wheat*, and near the homestead the inhabitants, clad some in linen and others in skins, and *ornamented with necklaces and pendants of stone, bone, or pottery* … some *cutting wood* with *stone axes with a wonderfully sharp edge*, fixed *in wooden handles* … with *stone adzes and gouges* (Hohleisen, Hohlmeissel), or *with little saws* composed *of carefully notched pieces of flint about 3 or 4 inches long, splitting* it *with stone wedges, scraping* it with *flint flakes*; some … *preparing handles for the spears, shafts* for the *arrows* and *wood* for the *bows*, or for the *broad paddles* used for *propelling the canoes*. Others are busy *grinding and sharpening the various stone tools*, *scraping skins* with *implements ground to a circular edge*, or *carving various* *instruments* *out of bone and antler with sharp splinters of flint*, while the women are preparing the meal with *pestles* and *mortars* and *grain rubbers*, and cooking it on the fire, generally outside the house, or *spinning thread with spindle and distaff*, or weaving it with *a rude loom* … *moulding of rude cups and vessels out of clay carefully* prepared.« (272, 73) The Neolithic farmers used *for food* the produce of their flocks and herds, eating all *their domestic* animals, incl. of *horse and dogs* … abundance of *game out of the forest* … was an *occasional supply*, nicht *main subsistence*. *Roe, stag*, wahrscheinlich auch elk u. reindeer, in *Irld* der sonst damals schon extinct *Irish elk* … auch *urus* (large wild ox) still living, also ate *hares, wild boars u. beavers*. (273, 74)

Der *Typus* u. *wichtigstes neolithisches Instrument* – *the Axe* ⦗damit Bäume gefällt zum *clearing des ground*, durch its *sharp edge wood became useful for manufacture of various articles and implements*⦘ unmessbar superior to the *rude flint hâche des Palaeolithic hunter*, which could *not make a straight cut in wood* u. generally *intended for use in the hand*, *without any handle*. [274]

*Spinning u. manufacture of linen introduced in Europe in the Neolithic age.* Im neolithic household the *spindle and the distaff* always to be found, u. die *circular perforated spindle-whorls* *(= whirls, Wirbel)* , made sometimes of stone, manchmal of bone or pottery, very commonly met with in the *Neolithic habitations u. tombs*. The *thread* ⦗as proved durch die *discoveries in the Swiss lakes*⦘ *composed of flax* u. the *combs* – used for pushing the threads of the warp (Kette) on to the weft (Einschlag), show that it was *woven into linen on some kind of loom*. Dies wahrscheinlich *Weiberarbeit*, wie universal practice *bei classical peoples des Mittelmeers* u. unter den *rude tribes of Africa, Asia, America*. [275]

*Pottery:* the *vessels are coarsely made by hand*, meist of *clay* worin *small pieces of stone*, or *fragments of shell*, have been worked; *brown* or *black in colour*, meist mit *rounded bottoms*, also nicht intended to *stand on tables*, sondern to be *placed in hollows* on the ground or floor; manchmal *ornamented* with patterns in right lines or in dots. [275, 276]

*Neolithic flint mines* *in Brandon* *(Suffolk):* Die *stone implements* der *Palaeolithic men* fashioned *out of pebbles and boulders torn from the rocks by the elements*; die *stones used by the Neolithic men* for their implements were carefully sought *beneath the ground*. *Series of workings at Grimes Graves*, near *Brandon* (Suffolk), explored by Reverend *W. Greenwell* , besteht aus *shafts connected together by galleries from 3 to 5 feet high*, made in pursuit of *a layer of flint good for manufacture*. War der flint within reach exhausted, a *new shaft sunk close by*, and a *new set of galleries made*; denn die *miners* seem to have been *ignorant of the use of timber to keep up the roof*, and were therefore *unable to work very far from the bottom of the shaft*. ⦗The partially filled up shafts *appear at the surface as circular depressions* in selber Form wie die hut circles.⦘ ⦗Diese *mode of mining* employed *in Britain as late, if not later than the time of James II* , in *obtaining the iron ore*, which made the *iron trade of Kent and Sussex* of such importance *down to the end of the 17t century*. The large woods in the neighbourhood of Hastings, in the direction of Battle, Brede and Ashburnham, mark to a great extent the broken ground caused by these excavations and render them worthless for the farmer.⦘

In the old workings *the miners have left behind their tools – picks made out of stags’ antlers, polished stone celts*, which fitted to the marks in the galleries, *chisels of bone and antler*, and *little cups made of chalk* evidently intended *to contain grease* for the supply of light. In einem der pits *large accumulation of the bones of animals* for the most part broken for the sake of their marrow, of the *Celtic shorthorn*, the sheep or goat, the horse, the pig, and the dog. Die *bones der shorthorns* belonged fast ausnahmslos to *young calves*, die des *dog* to *aged animals*, eaten by their masters after having become too old for hunting. [276–278]

*The flint implement Manufactory at Cissbury:* on a large scale *shafts and galleries* at Cissbury, – a *Camp* on a *commanding position of the South Downs*, about 3 miles from *Worthing*, explored by *General Lane Fox* ⦗*„Hill Forts of Sussex.“ Archaeologia XLII*⦘ etc. The *surface des ground* in and around the circular depressions *covered* *by innumerable implements* *in every stage of manufacture*, from *the nodule of flint, fresh out of the chalk*, spoilt by an unlucky blow, to the *article* nearly finished and accidentally broken. ⦗The Romans used the camp at *Cissbury* for military purposes.⦘ *Unter den 1000nds of implements* found at Cissbury nur 3 bear *traces of polishing* u. diese are broken; wahrscheinlich passirten sie also hier nur durch *ihr first state of manufactory* u. wurden *polished by the people who used them elsewhere*, at home *on one of those grindstones generally found in Neolithic villages*, wie im *log house* zu *Donegal*. [278–280]

*Commerce:* Die implements – dies folgt *from the existence of centres of mining and manufacture* – über weite districts vertheilt, *probably by being passed from hand to hand u. from tribe to tribe* , wie *copper kettles u. other articles, coming from the Russians in Kamtschatka*, find their way *eastward among the Eskimos of West Georgia* u. ebenso penetrate in this way *European articles* into the *heart of Africa*. Dass diese *Sorte traffick* extended *over enormous distances in the Neolithic age proved by the distribution der axes made of nephrite od. jade*. (Jade, Nephrit, Beilstein, Bitterstein) Dieser existirt in der alten Welt nur in *Turkestan* u. *China*, wo seit undenklicher Zeit er den Tartaren u. Chinesen supplies liefert; wurde in der *neolithischen* Zeit wahrscheinlich transported durch Asien, *by the steady westerly drifting der tribes*; *passing from hand to hand, and in the course of many ages arriving in Britain*. Sein *Werth* in its *rarity, hardness u. beautiful green colour, superstitious virtues* attached to it in all ages and among all peoples; unter *Chinesen u. Neuseeländern* heutiger Zeit wie bei den ancient inhabitants of Europe. In den *Neolithic times* die *Aexte* draus gemacht nicht for common use, sondern *suspended* as *charms and ornaments*; dies auch case in *Bronze age*. [280, 281] – *Traffic was carried on by barter.* [290]

*Navigation:* the intercourse der neolithic tribes greatly facilitated durch *canoes*, formed of the *trunk of trees*, hollowed partly durch fire, partly durch axes, u. *propelled by means of a broad paddle*; einige davon 40 feet long; in diesen canoes wahrscheinlich *crossed the Neolithic peoples* mit cattle u. household stuff über nach *Britain* (von den nächsten Gestaden des Continents) u. von da nach *Irland*. [281, 282]

*Warfare u. Camps:* the numerous heads of javelins, arrows u. spears zeigen dass die neolithic inhabitants Britain’s u. Irlands beständig *Krieg mit einander führten*, wie alle lowly civilised tribes *ausser den Eskimos*. *Club und* *Axt* used in *hand to hand fight*. For purpose of defence *camps constructed* with well-engineered *ramparts* of stone or earth, and fosses, manchmal 3 or 4 ramparts über einander. Von diesen ramparts *slung stones and arrows* ; *sehr zahlreich* diese camps, z. B. that of *Mount Badon bei Bath, Old Sarum bei Salisbury* u. *Caer Caradoc bei Church Stretton*. They cluster more thickly *on the spots which command the fertile valleys*, as f.i. the sides of the *Severn* and the *Dee*, and on the *Chalk Downs* overlooking the *rich „bottoms“ of the southern counties*. General *Lane Fox* says: Jede *„group of hills“* in den *South Downs* hatte *a stronghold* of its own intended „to contain the inhabitants of the surrounding district, *who dwelt* in *the valleys beneath*, where food and water were obtainable, and *where traces of their cultivation still exist*, and who, like the *savages of Africa* etc *resorted to their strongholds in times of danger*, each man carrying with him fuel, water and provisions hinreichend to sustain him till the foe retired.“ [282, 283]

*Britain occupied by tribal communities*, wie bei *Afghans, Kaffirs* u. den villages die Stanley found in his voyage down the Congo … there must have been *social differences resulting from the possession of property*, bes. *in the shape of flocks u. herds*; u. die *variation* in *size u. contents der burial places shows that it was unequally distributed*. [283]

*Burial of Dead.* Die neolithic tribes in Britain buried their dead manchmal in *caves* previously used by them for *dwellings*, manchmal in *chambered tombs*, which probably *represent* the *huts of the living*; jede davon *generally used as a vault common to the family* or *tribe*, contained *skeletons of all ages*; the interments *successive* etc. Nach *Aristoteles* war *the Iberian people* gewohnt of placing as many obelisks round the tomb of the dead warrior as he had slain enemies u. a *structure of this sort remarked in Britain*; so in some of the »long barrows« of Wiltshire, Somerset u. Gloucestershire … *a boundary wall of rubble stone* from 2 to 3 feet high, with large upright blocks of stone placed at intervals, forming a *peristyle* like those surrounding the *topes* of India. Manchmal the *boundary wall* very complicated wie zu *Uley in Gloucestershire*. The dead buried in these tombs *as they died* in a *contracted or crouching posture* … wahrscheinlich due *to their sleeping in that position*, nicht wie wir *at full length on a bed*. Dr *Thurnam* ( *Archaeologia* ) glaubt dass *from the many cases* in *which he has found cleft skulls*, that *human sacrifices were offered*, wie bei den *Gauls* ( *Caesar* , VI, *19* u. *Mela* III. 2); auch domestic animals slaughtered u. eaten mit den wild animals – boar, roe, stag – in honour of the dead. [284–287]

*Belief in a Future State: Implements* of various kinds, *flakes, arrow heads, scrapers, celts* and *pottery* generally found in the tombs, wohl für den use der dead; *the tomb*, to the Neolithic mind, *as truly the habitation of the spirits of the dead as the hut was that of the living*. Hence the offerings made to them u. die damit zusammenhängenden superstitions bis in die historische Periode hinein. Some of the tombs of imposing grandeur … *spirits worshipped by the family or tribe* wie bei *Red Indians* u. many *African* peoples. [287–290]

*Neolithic Civilisation on the Continent:* Traces davon entdeckt fast in ganz Europa. *1829* ⦗see *Keller »Lake Dwellings«* ⦘ *excavation for deepening the harbour of Ober Meilen, on the lake of Zurich*, revealed *Pfahlbauten*, erweckten damals so little interest wie die *gleichzeitigen discoveries* in *Kent’s Hole* durch *Mr MacEnery* ; ihre Wichtigkeit erkannt *1854*; seit der Zeit discoveries carried on in vielen lakes v. *Schweiz, Italien, Oestreich*, bewiesen, dass zahlreiche population dwelt in houses built on platforms, *at a short distance from the shore*, in the *Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages*; in der Schweiz bis *1st century after Chr.* ⦗*a coin of Claudius* found with other coins in the pile-dwelling of *Marin*.⦘ In meisten cases die habitations burnt u. die platforms m. den Rests der Hütten u. household stuff dropped down to the *bottom of the lake*, bildeten mit den *various articles*, lost from time to time, *a relic bed*; manchmal dies repeated, *each* *(successive)* conflagration being marked by its layer of ashes and charred piles.

The artificial platforms for the huts built on *piles interlaced with timbers*, manchmal on *bundles of brushwood, or fascines*, occasionally weighted with clay or stone –; die platforms *connected with the land* by *a cause-way*; intended *for defence*; als im *Bronze age die Angriffsmittel verbessert wurden, the settlements were built at a greater distance from the margin*, so as to be *farther away from the reach of the slingstone and of the arrow*. Aehnliche habitations described by Major Burton in *Dahomey* , durch captain *Cameron: »Across Africa«* im *Lake Mohrya* , as the homes of certain African tribes. They were used in *Asia Minor* im *Apamaean lake* *(Hitzig: Supplementa Tubulae Syriae. c. II)* as late as the *middle of the 14th century* by the „*Christian fishermen* who live here on the lake in wooden huts built on piles“. Nach *Herodot* (16) the *pile dwellings on Lake Prasias* gewährten ihren inhabitants sichern Schutz gegen die Waffen der Perser unter Megabazus, im Marsch nach *Hellespont* u. dem conquest of Thrace.

*Das pile-dwelling of Robenhausen*, which lies *buried in a peat-bog on the South side of Lake Pfäffikon* diene als Beispiel einer dieser communities im Neolithic age in Switzerland. … In remains of 6 of these huts, exposed in digging a canal, were at 6 different points at equal distances little heaps of corn, pieces of woven u. plaited cloth, stores of raw flax together with a mealing stone u. also 6 groups of stones which had formed the hearths. Scheint daher, dass jede hut bewohnt by a family who had its own arrangements for preparing victuals u. making clothes u. dass the *whole settlement nicht a community with a common store house like a Mexican pueblo*. In einem Platz gefunden considerable quantity of *ears of wheat* and *barley along with bread*; in einem andern *corn* and bread with *burnt apples u. pears*; in drittem *flax in hanks* or *skeins, spun* u. *plaited* into *cords, nets u. mats* u. *woven* into *cloth*, along with *earthenware weights for the loom*; the corn was reduced to meal in *mortars* or on *mealing stones* … *caraway* *(Kümmel)* *u. poppy seeds* used, wahrscheinlich für *flavouring*, a *small round cake of poppy* found; ebenso *stores* of *water-chestnut, common nut, walnut*, and *apples* wovon 300 found together, *beech nuts and acorns* (vielleicht für swine); *raspberry, strawberry, elderberry, blackberry, cherry, sloe*. *Fragments of pottery abundant*, ebenso *various* *instruments* *of stone, antler, and bone* (derselben Art wie die in Britain u. Irland), sometimes with the *handles of wood*, perfectly preserved. *Fragments of leather*, also auch mit *tanning* acquainted; *a wooden last* (Leisten), also *making shoes or sandals* *for measure* ; auch *wooden bows, bowls*, andre Artikel; the *asphalt of the Val de Travers* (now so commonly employed for pavements) was used for *cementing the stone implements into their handles*, u. die fires lighted *by means of a flint flake and a piece of iron pyrites*, wie *„the flint and steel“* of the present time.

The *large quantities of bones* thrown away into the refuse-heap at the *bottom of the lake* show that the villagers lived on *the wild animals of the district* u. on their flocks u. herds, and the produce of their fields and gardens; ate large quantities of *fish*; die *domestic animals* – ausser dem *large oxen* – of the *same breeds as those kept in Neolithic Britain* u. von diesen wenigstens 3 – *swine, sheep, cows – kept in pens close to the huts of their owners*. Their *excrements* (dieser Thiere) *form a layer* v. 2–10 inches thick, *mixed with litter*. [290–294]

Von den *domestic animals dieses Neolithic age in Switzerland*:

*Dog*: gleich entfernt v. *Wolf* u. *Jackal*, intermediate in size zwischen *hound* u. *spaniel* ; nicht descended vom *europ. Wolf*; its nearest native ally, in the wild state, der *Jackal*, inhabitant der *warm regions of South Eastern Europe* u. *Süd u. Central Asien*, wahrscheinlich the breed of dogs originated under *the care of man in one of those countries*. [295]

*Hog*: in den pile-dwellings found *2 breeds*: *turf-hog* (sus palustris) (Torfschwein of Rütimeyer) u. the *common domestic pig* (Sus scrofa domesticus); diese 2 represent the extremes *woher our present domestic hogs derived*. Die aboriginal wildness of the turf hog nicht zu schliessen aus dessen wide distribution *through Europe*, denn at present the *swine introduced in Nord u. Süd America u. Australia* durch die colonists, are gradually spreading over those countries; ebenso kann es in Europa »verwildert« sein. Die enormous abundance of its remains in den Neolithic Pfahlbauten, coupled mit den pig-sties, and stores of acorns and beechnuts found at Robenhausen, wo kein ander breed of swine discovered, zeigen dass it was *introduced in Europe as a domestic animal*; small *size of its tusks*, verglichen mit wild boar, most probably *result of long domestication* bevor its arrival in Europe. – Der *common domestic hog* kann originally in Europa gezähmt worden sein, da *wild boar* a member of the *European* *fauna in Pleistocene and Prehistoric times*; aber wild boar auch found in *Asia*; daher wahrscheinlich dass er dort gezähmt wie *dog* u. *turf hog*. [295–297]

*The Domestic oxen, sheep, and goats: 2 od. 3 races of oxen* found in den pile dwellings; davon the *small, delicately shaped Celtic short horn* war bis *zur English conquest* in Britain the *sole domestic ox*; wird gefunden in den *turbaries* v. *Britain, Ireland, Continent* zus. mit remains von *stag u. roe* u. dergleichen animals; beweist nichts bezüglich its *aboriginal condition*; denn the *cattle introduced in America u. Australia* sind dort auch verwildert u. are now spreading with a remarkable rapidity über Australien. Sein nächstes living analogon in wild state gegenwärtig *some of the smaller oxen of Southern Asia*, aber noch nicht mit Sicherheit traced to any one breed of wild cattle.

*2te Race of cattle: Bos frontosus* is allied to the *Celtic shorthorn*, nach *Rütimeyer* to the *urus*; may be the result of a cross between the two. ⦗What careful selection will effect in modifying the cranial characters to be gathered from the fact that the *polled Galloway cattle have lost their horns and acquired a frontal protuberance in 80 Jahren*.⦘ Von wegen des small development of the *horncores*, the frontosus wahrscheinlich näher allied to the *Celtic* short horn als zu urus.

*3t Race:* *Bos taurus* – large domestic ox – can derive vom *wild urus* inhabiting *Europe* in *Pleistocene u. Praehistoric ages bis ins 16t Jhd post Chr*; da er aber *zuerst* »in his domestic state« erscheint *zusammen mit nichteurop*. *Thieren* er auch wahrscheinlich *gezähmt eingeführt*. ⦗Nach *Nilsson* imported into Scandinavia v. *Southern Europe*.⦘ Dasselbe gilt für das *domestic horse*. ⦗ *Rütimeyer* fügt *ass* zu den Hausthieren gefunden in den *Neolithic pile-dwellings* at *Wauwyl* u. that of *Auvernier*, of late Bronze age⦘

*Sheep* of the pile-dwellings *horned*, of a fine delicate breed, u. die *goat* possessed keeled horns arching backwards (war wahrscheinlich ancestor der *Welsh goat*); keins der beiden *represented by any wild stock in Europe*, both *unknown in pleistocene age*; also eingeführt from abroad.

Die *Ueberbleibsel der meisten dieser Hausthiere* found in *association mit Neolithic implements* nicht nur in *Britain u. Schweiz*, sondern in *Italien, Spain, France, Germany, Scandinavia*; also kept by the herdsmen jenes remote age über den grössren Theil des Continents; v. jetzigen »local varieties« ⦗»produced by long-continued selection«⦘ *nichts* bisher observed in *Neolithic Europe*. Die *domestic animals* scheinen *in Europa en masse eingeführt worden zu sein*, nicht *one after another*. *Dog* wahrscheinlich *first* servant of man (beim Jagen), doch kein direct evidence on this point. [297–299]

»*Domestic animals probably derived von Central Plateau of Asia* zusammen mit their masters; dort Jackal, wild boar, wild horse, u. in ancient times, the urus. Kein *well-authenticated case* of the discovery of any of the domestic animals in *any part of Europe* in *any deposits older than the prehistoric age*; *Gaudry* , *Rütimeyer* , *Virchow* u. *Forsyth Major* sagen dass sie *have not met* with the domestic animals *in the undisturbed Pleistocene strata of their respective countries*. Remains of domestic animals often found in *caverns brought into association with Pleistocene species*, either by the *hand of man*, or by the *burrowing of rats, rabbits, badgers, foxes*.« (p. 300)

*The cultivated seeds and fruits*. *(Heer: Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten)* Nach *Heer* by the Neolithic inhabitants der Schweizer Pfahlbauten angebaut *8 Arten cereals* :

1) *small lake-dwelling wheat.* (Triticum vulgare antiquorum); 2) *Egyptian wheat* (T. turgidum); 3) *Two-rowed wheat* (T. dicoccum) ⦗*(κόκκος berry)*⦘ 4) *One-rowed wheat* (T. monococcum); 5) *Compact six-rowed barley* (Hordeum hexastichum densum) 6) *small six-rowed barley* (Hordeum sanctum); 7) *Common millet* (Panicum miliaceum); 8) *Italian setaria* (Setaria italica).

The *small lake-dwelling wheat* was the most common, lasted to the Roman conquest of Switzerland, then became *extinct*. The *Egyptian wheat* stimmt exact mit *keiner existing variety*, was rarely grown; the *two-rowed kind* differs from all known varieties, the *one-rowed* only known in the Neolithic age by the *presence of a single ear*. The small *six-rowed barley* wahrscheinlich die Form wovon descended the common *4-rowed* barley; the *axes of the ears having become longer by cultivation through many ages*, and the *spikelets* having been pushed farther asunder by the *greater development of the grain*.

*Several of our most familiar fruits and seeds* grew in the Neolithic gardens and orchards; *all*, however, *smaller than those now under cultivation*, u. *nearer to the wild forms from which they descended*. ⦗the *seeds of the wild plants found in the lake dwellings* are absolutely *identical with those of the present times*, während the *seeds of the plants under cultivation* have been improved in the many centuries between Neolithic times and ours⦘

1) *Peas* (pisum sativum) 2) *Poppies* (Papaver somniferum antiquum) 3) *Flax* (linum angustifolium); 4) *Caraway (Kümmel) seeds* (Carum carui) 5) *Apples* (Pyrus malus); 6) *Pears* (pyrus communis); 7) *Bullace plums* (Prunus institia).

The *cereals* of *Mediterranean habit*, used by the *Egyptians, Greeks, Romans* from the earliest times. *Two weeds* which grew in the cornfields, the *common blue corn-bottle* (Centaurea cyanus) u. the *Cretan catchfly (Silene cretica)* indigenous in *Asia Minor, Greece, Italy*. The *small-leaved flax* a native of *Southern-Europe*. – Also the Pfahlbautenbewohner bebauten *vegetables not traceable to wild stocks now growing in Switzerland*; *kamen v. Südeuropa* od. *Kleinasien*. They show *that agriculture first invented in the warmer regions of the South and East* u. knowledge davon *später introduced in Nord-West- u. Central Europa*. [300–302]

*The Shell-Mounds of Denmark*. ⦗ *Steenstrup* : *Sur les Kjokkenmoddings de l’age de la Pierre.* Copenhagen. *1869* . *Worsaae* : *La colonisation de la Russie et du Nord Scandinave, trad. par E. Beauvois 1875.* Copenhague⦘

Die durch *Prof. Steenstrup* u. andre explorirten refuse-heaps of Denmark zeigen Culturstand auf den Küsten des Baltischen Meers sehr *unter general level der Schweiz u. Europa’s in neolithic age*. Vast accumulations of shells and bones of fishes, birds and animals, *close to the seashore mark the sites of ancient encampments*, occupied at least 2/3 of the year und nicht *mere restingplaces* for nomad hunters. *Oysters, cockles, mussels u. periwinkles* der principal shell-fish eaten; the *herring, cod, dorse, eel* *and flounder* the principal fishes. The *shell-fish* of the usual dimensions *(Lyell)* to which they arrive *in the open sea* , not *stunted as now in the Baltic*; *dieser also damals more closely connected mit Ocean u. nicht so brackish* wie jetzt. *Cod u. Herring* are *deep-sea fishes*; also *not likely* to *have been caught ohne use of coracles or canoes*. Unter den *birds* der refuse-heaps most frequent *the great Auk* (Alca impennis), *now extinct in Europe* u. fast becoming exterminated *in Greenland*; auch *wild ducks, geese, wild swans* u. *capercailzies*; die letzteren feed principally *on the buds of pines*, daher zu schliessen – von its frequent appearance auf *dense forests of pine* covering the country; *die discoveries in the peat bogs show following sequence:*

1) *Scotch firs:* associated *with articles of* the *Neolithic age*; 2) *Oaks* mit articles of *Bronze age*; 3) *Beeches* mit articles of *Iron* age. Die most *common* *animals* : *stag, roe, wild boar*; aber auch *Beaver, water rat, urus, lynx, wild cat, wolf, fox, otter, Hedgehog, Dog, bear, seal, Porpoise*. *Alle wild ausser dog*, also *man* nur noch *hunter, fowler, fisherman*; die refuse heaps enthalten *implements exceedingly rude*, aber *admirably made flakes*; *polished stone axes* occur u. *some of the implements made out of polished stone axes*; belong daher zu same age wie die *neolithic tumuli* (over the dead) abounding in the district. [302–305]

*The Neolithic art:* tief *unter der der Cavemen* in the arts of design. Ihr highest artistic achievement is the rude figure of a stone axe in its handle of wood, engraved on the roof of the *sepulchral chamber of Dol-ar-Marchnant*, near *Locmariaker* in Bretagne. [305]

Die *neolithic peoples* schufen die rudiments der jetzigen Cultur – *spinning, weaving, pottery making, mining, farming*. Die *neolithische Civilisation* von *langer Dauer*, jedoch *verschiedner* in different countries. Sie machte einer höheren Cultur Platz in *Greece u. Italy* lang bevor sie aus *Nord- u. Central-Europa* verschwand. *Glass beads* brought from the Mediterranean, and probably of Phoenician workship, occur in the *Neolithic tombs of France*, u. in den *Pfahlbauten der Schweiz*. Während sich Neolithic phase behauptete in *Frankreich, Germany, Britain, Scandinavia*, waren *Aegypten u. Assyrien* schon highly organised empires, u. die Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the path of civilisation. [307, 308]

Die neolithischen tribes kamen – vom Plateau v. Centralasien – wahrscheinlich auf denselben two routes pursued by the subsequent migrations – *the one über Kleinasien u. Griechenland u. über Italien nach Spanien*; *the other* über die *Region des Don u. der Volga*, u. die *grossen Ebnen der Donau* u. thence penetrating to the borders of the Ocean. Sie müssen den *Continent lang occupirt* haben, bevor sie nach *Grossbritannien* u. dort lang angesiedelt gewesen sein, bevor sie nach *Irland* übersetzen, denn die *Meerbarrière*, die die Römer trotz ihrer Flotten von *Irland* abhielt, muss noch grösseres obstacle gebildet haben for *canoes gemacht aus dem trunk of a big tree*. [306, 307]

### [Ch. IX] Die neolithischen Bewohner Grossbritanniens sind iberischer Race.

Die researches von *Thurnam* *u. Davis* , *Wilson, Busk etc* über die buried skeletons der Neolithiker – *met with in the alluvia and peat -mosses* – offenbaren dass die *population der British islands uniform in charackter* während *des ganzen neolithic age*. *Sie waren kleiner Statur*, 5 Fuss 5 Zoll hoch (nach Dr Thurnam) im Durchschnitt; *skulls of fair average capacity*, of the *long* or *oval type*. ⦗the length being due to a *development of the back of the head*, termed by *Dr Broca* „ *dolichocephalie* occipitale“, as distinguished from the *„dolichocephalie frontale“* of other races⦘ *The outline of the face was oval*, the *supraciliary ridges* being less strongly marked than in the *round skulls, the upper and lower jaws small*, and the *lower part of the face* not projecting beyond a vertical line dropped from the forehead *(orthognathic)*; the *nose aquiline* u. die *forehead low* as compared with that of the *round skulls*. Skulls mit diesen Characteren described by *Huxley* u. *Wilson* von vielen places in Schottland; ditto they occur in neolithic tombs in *England, Wales u. Ireland*, so dass nicht zweifelhaft, dass alle *British Isles* von *Anfang bis Ende der neolithic period* bewohnt durch die *same small race in the same stage of culture*. In *Schottld* it is identical with the people of *(kumbecephalic)* boat-shaped skulls of Prof. Wilson u. in *Irland* by those *from chambered tombs, peatmosses u. river deposits*, described by *Huxley* as belonging to the river-bed type, u. v. Dr *Thurnam* to that of the *„long barrows“*. Cf. p. 312 the *long skull* of *Neolithic age, from chambered tomb, Long Barrow, Rodmarton* u. the *Broad Skull of Bronze age, Round Barrow, Gristhorpe* (Yorkshire). The *same habits of life, common to a tribe or race of rude civilisation, coupled with comparative purity of blood, certainly produced a greater uniformity in the shape of the head*, than that which we observe amongst ourselves. [309–313]

*Range on the Continent: Belgium, France, and Spain.* Traces dieser *small men* in numerous *interments* in *chambered tombs and caves* in *Belgium* u. *France, Spain, Gibraltar*, also *West of the Rhine* and *North of the Alps*. *Virchow* hat in the *peat bogs* of *North Germany* u. of *Denmark skulls of the same type* gefunden, bearing a closer resemblance to *those of the Basques* than of any other race. [313, 314]

*These neolithic small men Iberians.* *numerous skulls from Basque cemeteries.* *Dr. Broca* bewiesen: the *real Basque stock small in stature, dark in complexion, black hair u. eyes, a long head*; dies *small dark-haired people* identical with *the ancient Iberians of history* , liessen ihren *name in the Iberian peninsula* as *a mark of their former dominion in the west*; the *neolithic inhabitants* of *the British isles* belong *to the same non-Aryan section of mankind as the Basques*, in ancient times spread through Spain as far to *the South as* *the pillars of Hercules*, u. so weit *nordöstlich as Germany u. Denmark*. [314, 315]

*Celtic Invasion of Gaul and Spain in the neolithic age.* Während *Iberic population of the Brit. Isles* frei blieb v. Contact mit other races während *des ganzen Neolithic age*, stosst zusammen auf Continent mit ihnen *new set of men*, bigger, averaging, for the adult male, *5 feet, 8.4* inches in height *(Dr. Thurnam* *)*; the *skulls broad* or *round (brachycephalic)*, the supra-occipital tuberosity or „probole“ prominent, the parieto-occipital region often flattened, the supraciliary ridges more strongly marked than in the oval skulls. The *face* statt oval ist *angular*, or *lozenge-shaped*; *upper and lower jaws so largely developed* and *projected* so far *beyond the vertical line* dropped from the forehead, that *Huxley* calls them *macrognathic*; ihre *foreheads high, broad, and expanded*. Remains davon in caves u. tombs in *Belgium, France, Spain* show dass diese *tall race* occupied these regions in the Neolithic ages u. dass sie mit der small dark race dwelt side by side zusammen, in France, shown durch die *occurrence of the two forms of skull*, with all the intermediate varieties, in chambered tombs and sepulchral caves. Dieser new invader sind die *Celtae of history (Huxley u. Thurnam)*, with *tall stature, light hair* u. fierce blue eyes. Die *Belgae* auch tall u. fair, aber ihre exact relation to the Celtic or Teutonic tribes is uncertain. [315, 316]

#### Historical Evidence of Iberic and Celtic Races in Spain and Gaul.

*Seit historischer Zeit Spanien* in possession dieser 2 races, *Iberians in Northwestern Region*, u. *Celts or Gauls* in broad band *südlich v. Pyrenäen entlang den Gestaden des Mittelmeers*, nach Ephorus u. Eratosthenes bis *Cadiz od. Gadeira (μέχρι* *Γαδείρων)* u. forming *isolated settlements* also in Portugal. Bei ihrem histor. Auftreten bereits *Mischung zwischen beiden* – die *Celt-Iberi of Castile*, scheidend die reinen Iberier des Westens von den reinen Celten im Osten; die *iberische Bevölkerung* so überwiegend (der Zahl nach), dass sie der ganzen Insel ihren Namen gab, obgleich sie nicht länger masters des *Districts best known to the Phoenicians and ancient Greeks on the side of the Mediterranean*. Here auch *Ligurians* nach *Thucydides* . In the North the *Vascones*, then as now, held the *Basque provinces of Spain*.

*Gaul: Iberia* believed by the ancient Greeks to have extended jenseits der Pyrenäen bis an Rhone ( *Strabo* III, 166); nach Scyllax the *Ligurians u. mixed Iberians* *(Ἴβηρες* *μιγάδες)* dwelt on the shores des Mittelmeers von *Mündung der Rhone bis Emporium in Spain* . Im *Nordwest* bis zum Ocean, aber its *northern frontier* undefined (wegen ungenügender geograph. Kenntnisse der Griechen). In the time of *Strabo* … the *Pyrenees northern boundary of Iberia*.

*Als Caesar Gallien* eroberte, besassen die *iberischen Aquitanier* die Region bounded by *the Garonne* *(Garumna)* , *den Cevennen u. den Pyrenäen*. Augustus fügte zu Aquitania hinzu die *14 tribes* inhabiting *the district zwischen Garonne u. Loire* (Liger), wahrscheinlich weil sie mehr stammverwandt den Aquitani als den Celtae; *Dr. Broca* betrachtet selbe als *mixed race* wie die Celtiberer v. Spanien. Auch ethnologische Verbindung zwischen *Aquitania u. Brittany* (Armorica) ⦗ *Plinius* *:* IV, 17. *„Aquitania Armorica ante dicta“* ; Plinius bewahrheit durch *Broca’s map* *of the stature and complexion of the peoples in France*. Die *Celtae* occupied the region von *Loire bis Seine* u. sie waren masters von dem country v. den *Grenzen Aquitaniens bis in’s Thal der Rhone being conterminous mit den Celts of Spain*. So die *Southwestern districts of France u. Spain* occupied by *Iberian population*, represented by the small dark Basques, während die *Celtic peoples* bewohnten die Gegend des *valley der Seine, durch Central Frankreich ins valley der Rhone u. über die eastern Pyrenäen bis in’s südliche Spanien*. [317–320]

#### The older, i. e. Iberic Race in Retreat.

Der *westwards retreat* der Iberer von Rhone *(Strabo* *)* bis nach den Pyrenäen, zeigt *pressure of invasion from the East* ⦗vor den Tagen Strabo’s⦘. Bei Beginn der historischen Zeit nehmen sie bedeutenderen Platz in Europa ein als [in] späteren [Zeiten], aber geringeren *als in Neolithic age* wo sie lived *nordöstlich* bis *zum Rhein*. *Innerhalb des Neolithic age*, lange before the dawn of history, *Invasion of the Regions west of the Rhine* [durch die Kelten] ⦗die dortigen Iberer weiter nach south-west treibend⦘. In *Caesar’s Zeiten* besassen die *Belgae* das *Land von Seine u. Marne bis Schelde* (Scaldis) u. pressten auf die *Celtae*, mit denen sie probably closely related in language u. physique; sie selbst, *die Belgae*, in their turn, pushed to the West *by the advance of the Germans into the Rhine provinces*. The *Neolithic aborigines* are in the *West*; u. die relative positions of *Iberians, Celts, Belgae u. Germans* mark *their relative antiquity in Europe*. [320, 321]

#### Historic Evidence as to Iberic and Celtic Peoples in Britany.

Dieselben *elements of population* befinden sich in *Britain in denselben relative positions [as in Gaul]* . *Celts* overrun – having crossed the Channel – the greater portion of Britain *until the Silures* ( *Tacitus. Agricola, XI*), die Tacitus mit den *Iberians* identificirt, were left only in the fastnesses die später *refuge der Welsh* (Celten) gegen die *English* invaders; ebenso die *Belgae* on the rear of the Celts, u. take possession of the *Pars Maritima* ( *Caesar, V, 12* ) or southern counties of England. Der unsettled state des Landes, als *Caesar in Britain erschien*, due to the struggles then going on between Celtae u. Belgae. Mit dem Einfall der Germanic tribes in England, sie forced back Celten u. Belgier auf die *Iberians*, ever pressing the latter to the *West*, bis wo Ocean Grenze setzt. [321, 322]

#### Relations of Iberians to Ligurians and Etruskans.

*Vor der Invasion Galliens durch die Celten* dwelt *Ligurians* im *District um Marseilles*, held die *region zwischen* *river Padus (Po)* u. *Gulf of Genua bis zur westlichen Grenze von Etrurien u. extended entlang der Küste des Mittelmeers bis zu den Pyrenäen*, i. e. über das area *included in the name of Iberia* in its more ancient sense; left their trace in dem Namen *Liger* für *Loire* u. possibly in *Britain* (Armorica) in the name *Lloegrians (Lloegr)*. Von den classical writers werden sie als den *Iberern* ähnlich beschrieben, ditto small stature u. swarthy complexion, *related to the Iberiern*, wie Frank zu Goth etc, *belong to the same non-Aryan branch der human race*. Keineswegs impossible, dass die *small swarthy Etruskans*, deren Empire, in the earliest time *recorded by history*, extended *North of the Alps into Tyrol* u. die ditto in *Besitz der ganzen Lombardei*, belong to the same *non-Aryan stock*, since they were conterminous and driven away from their old possessions *by the same invaders*. Wie die *Celten* pouring down durch *Central France* die *Ligurier* schieden von den *Iberiern*, so they *poured* über *die Alpenpässe* (Alpes Juliennes) scheidend die *Etrusker v. Rhätien* u. *Noricum* von denen of *Etruria proper*. Die *Iberians of France u. Spain*, the *Silures of Wales*, the *Ligures of Southern Gaul* u. *Northern Italy* u. die *small dark Etruskans* sind *ethnological islands* isolated by *successive invasions*, pointing out that if we could get deep enough in the past time *ganz Europa nur bewohnt war by a swarthy non-Aryan population*. [322, 323]

#### The Iberic Element in the present Population of Spain.

Das *Iberic element* in the population of Spain has contributed to the *long-headedness of the modern Spaniard*, obgleich dieser Character partly derived sein kann v. *Gothen* u. *Mauren*. Die *Basques des Northwest*, protected from attack by their inaccessible country, haben die *race characters* in grösster Reinheit erhalten. Die Goths contributed zu *fair* or *„xanthochroic“* characters des modern Spaniard, so die *Mauren* zu deren *dark complexions* and *lithe active forms*. Zwischen Mauren u. Iberiern keine grosse physische Differenz; wahrscheinlich *closely allied* together u. connected mit *Berbers* of *Northern Africa*, considered by Prof. Busk *to belong to the same stock as the Iberians*. [323, 324]

#### Iberic, Celtic and other Elements in the Population of France.

*Dr. Broca’s Maps* ⦗Mém. Société Anthrop. de Paris. I u. III.⦘ based on the *army returns for each department v. 1831–1860*; zeigen *the number of exemptions per 1000 conscripts* weil *unter dem normalen Mass der Höhe* von *1.56 metres = 5 feet 1½ inches*; u. *intimate relation of stature to the prevalent complexion: following table of exemption per 1000 conscripts* in den *départements noirs (black hair and eyes)*, *départements gris (brown hair mit gray or brown eyes)* u. *départements blancs (light complexion u. eyes)*:

| Départements noirs: | 75.47 bis 174.85 | *exemptions fast 3 × grösser* in *den „départ. noirs“* als in den *„dép. blancs“*; |
|---|---|---|
| Départements gris: | 54.77 – 74.40. |  |
| Départements blancs | 24.39 – 54.11 |  |

hence the *swarthy inhabitants* in present France the *shortest*, and the *fair* the *tallest*. Die *„dépt. noirs“* mainly centred in the *old province of Aquitania of Augustus* ; diese characters handed down v. den *Ancient Aquitani* or *Basques (Aquitani, Auski (Auch), Eusques, Basques (Vascones)* mit *verhältnissmässig little change durch infusion of new blood seit Zeit der röm. Erobrung v. Gallien*. In *Caesar’s Aquitania* – open u. defenceless country – has *maximum of change* taken place. Von den *8 Départements*, worin jetzt getheilt, präsentirt nur das der *Landes* the *Basque characters*, preserved von invasion durch seine *vast stretches of sand* .

*Enormous preponderance* of Basque characters in *district zwischen Garonne u. Loire*: v. den *28 departments* hier *21* belonging to the *dépts. noirs* (of Broca’s).

Die *5 départements of Loire inférieure, Vendée, Maine et Loire, Deux Sèvres* u. *Charente Inférieure*, wo prevailing population of *moderate stature, brown hair u. gray or brown eyes* , lie on seaboard open to invasion, *u. die 6 Départements „gris“, südlich v. Garonne* mark the settlements of the fair-haired *Visigoths, Franks u. English*, die masters waren dieser country v. *a.d. 419* to the present day. Die *Gothen* nahmen ⅔ des Landes u. ⅓ der slaves der eingebornen proprietors. *Diese departments* nun occupied by a *Celt-Ibero-Teutonic* people, whose *physique intermediate* zwischen Siegern u. Besiegten.

*Ausserhalb der Grenzen Aquitaniens iberisches blood* asserts itself in the *swarthy small inhabitants* of *Bretagne*; dann östlich *Dépt. de l’Ardèche*, südlich *in Département Aude u. Département Ariège* . *Armoricans* (Bretagne) zeichneten sich aus durch their coherence u. Widerstand gegen die *teutonic invaders*; resisted *Clovis* , schliesslich »an honourable and equal union« mit fränk. Reich. Wahrscheinlich gehörte *Armorica* zum alten *Iberia*; doch auch während des *Conquest der British Islands durch English* , the defeated Britons emigrated in considerable numbers to Bretagne (»u. *sie selbst*, to some extent, of *Iberian derivation*«).

Die *broadness of skull*, predominating in the *„départements noirs et gris“* nach Broca a character *derived from the Celts*, zus. mit andern characters not found in the small, dark, typical *Spanish Basques*.

The *ancient Ligurians* represented by the *dark small inhabitants of the Hautes et Basses Alpes*.

Wie *Aquitania des Augustus* centre der *Iberian population* in France, so *Belgic Gaul* the headquarters of the *tall, fair-haired* element; the *ancient Belgae*, considered by *Broca* *u. William Edwards* als identic mit den *Kymri* od. *Cimbri*; die Germanen drückten die *Belgae* nach *Westen* u. in die *central u. southern parts of France* . – *The intermediate part of Celtic Gaul* occupied theils by *fair tall peoples*, who may be of *Celtic, Belgic or Teutonic ancestry*, aber hauptsächlich durch *gray-eyed, brown-haired race* of *moderate stature, natural result der fusion zwischen tall fair* u. *small dark races*; dies (nach Broca) the *result [of the union] of the Celt with the Iberian* and constituting the *Celtae of Caesar* as distinguished from the *Belgae*.

Die *ancient Celts* ⦗u. sie haben physical differences von den present inhabitants of Celtic Gaul⦘ known to the Greeks and Romans – *the hordes* that invaded *ancient Greece u. Italy* – were *on the move*, daher *of comparatively pure race*, während der *modern Celt* the result of the conquerors dwelling side by side with the conquered in the same country for unknown number of centuries. Dass this *fusion of races* was going on in the earliest times recorded in *Spanish or Gaulish history* zeigt der use der terms: *Ιβηρες μυγαδες, Κελτο-Λιγυρες, Κελτ-Ιβηρες*. *Plutarch* (life of *Aemilius Paulus* VI) spricht v. den Ligures in Südgallien as mingled with the *Gauls* u. den *Iberians* living by the shores of the *Mediterranean* in Südgallien. [324–330]

#### Iberic element in British Isles:

⦗ *Huxley* : Journal Ethnol. Soc. London. II, 4, p. 382: On *the Ethnology of Britain* ⦘ traceable in *different areas affording refuge to the peoples* in possession of the country *before the invasion of the English*. Resemblance *zwischen den Silures u. Iberians* schon remarked by *Tacitus* ; dies gilt heut zu Tag auch von dem *small swarthy Welshman* mit *long head* u. *Iberian physique*; der *broadheaded dark Welshman* identisch mit dem *broadheaded dark Frenchman* u. das *Welsh people* principally *Celtic* and *Iberic*, jede intermediate variety zwischen den 2 being represented. Die *Silures* nicht länger a compact ethnological island, sind dispersed u. mingled mit andren races, English u. Celtish.

In *Schottland* the *dark Highlander* u. in *Irland* the *black Celts to the West of the Shannon* still mit *Iberian* characteristics, crossed with Celtic, Danish, Norse, English blood. ⦗Nach *Huxley* die *tall, longheaded, dark u. red-haired men* (der Highlands) v. *Scandinavian*, u. die tall, long-headed fair men of *Low German origin*; both these intermingled mit der *older Celtic population* of *Wales, Irld, Scotld*, innerhalb der historic period.⦘

Bis jetzt also strange *persistence of the Iberic race*. [330, 331]

#### Witness of Language:

*Professor Sayce (Journal anthropol. Inst.* vol. V. Part I p. 26) „*language cannot be the test of race at all, but only of social contact* … Exceptional the *stereotyped families* of *Aryan, Semitic and Turanian speech*. Savage and barbarous dialects in a *constant state of flux and change*, while conquest, migration etc occasion the borrowing of new languages, u. the loss of the old ones … Das *älteste Basque*, womit wir acquainted, nicht früher als seit *3 od. 4 Jahrhdte* back; früher there was no literature u. die *changes [undergone] by languages other than literary* astonishingly rapid u. extensive … *Strabo* (III) states that the Iberians *had many different dialects u. several different alphabets*. *This points to want of intercourse* … doch must have been general resemblance, da *Strabo* (book IV) says diese (spanish-iberischen) languages were like the idioms of Aquitania, in contradistinction to those of Celtic Gaul. *The modern French Basque dialects* not descended from any of those of Aquitania, da *their speakers first entered France after the fall of the Roman Empire*, aber they would be *later descendants of some cognate dialect or dialects*. *Basque* … the sole survivor of the *Iberian family of speech* displaced by the Keltic invaders. …“ the *non-Aryan tongue*, spoken by the *neolithic aborigines of Britain* obliterated durch „the dissolving action of time“. Selbst also, wenn *no Basque roots* in *the Celtic languages of the British Isles* beweist dies nichts as to *origin der small dark peoples of Wales, Scotland, Ireland*. [331–334]

Nach *Abbé’s Inchauspé* *(Matériaux. 1875)* philolog. inquiries into the *dialects of the Pyrenees* the *Basque names for cutting tools*:

*Aizcora* ⦗(of *aitz (aitza, atcha)* a *stone* u. *gora* (high, lifted up) = stone mounted in a handle)⦘ for: *Axe*.

*Aitzurra, Pick.* ⦗gebildtet von *aitz* (stone) u. *urra* (tear asunder) = a stone to tear in sunder the earth⦘

*Aizttoa – Knife.* ⦗v. *aitz* und *ttoa* a diminutive = a *little stone*⦘

*Aizturrac – Scissors* ⦗*aizturrac aus aiztto* (a small stone or knife) u. *urra*, i. e. *„little stones* (the final c marking the plural) *for tearing asunder“* in contradistinction to *Aitzurra* or a stone for tearing asunder – i. e. a *great stone*⦘

Diese *Worte* mit Ausnahme von *Aizttoa* (confined to the *valley of Roncal* in Spanish Navarre) used by the Basque speaking peoples of France and Spain. [334]

#### Survivals from Neolithic Age:

*Principal domestic animals and cereals and many of the European fruits; Iberic u. Celtic peoples.*

The *Polished Stone axes* gradually supplanted for *purposes of every day use by better implements of Bronze*, wurden schliesslich religiöse Gegenstände: Hiessen *thunderbolts* ⦗u. sollten allerlei wunderthätige Eigenschaften besitzen⦘ im Mittelalter in *Italy, France* . In *Germany, Scandinavia* hiessen sie *Thor’s hammers (Thor’s viggar)*. In *Greece* wurden the smaller ones used as amulets u. *imitations* davon made in *sardonyx* u. *carnelian*. Selbst einige der larger ones have been perforated for suspension. – *Flintarrowheads* haben also a *superstitious value*: heissen in this country *elf-darts*; ihre form still *preserved in carnelian necklaces* used by the *Bosnian peasantry*; manchmal they form *the central pendant* der magnificent necklaces found in den *Etruscan tombs*. – The *flint flake*, universally used as *a knife* in the Neolithic age, used by the *Egyptians* for making the first incision in the body of the dead for purposes of embalming u. by the Israelites in circumcision; besonders *closely aber related with the rites of burial* etc. Aus den Fünden in Gräbern ergiebt sich dass *flintflakes* used in burial ceremonies in the *Romano-British age bis 4t Jhd p. Chr.* u. in *France* noch *unter den Merovingern*.

Die *Neolithic civilisation* spread over *Northern Africa, the whole of Europe and Asia*, the *islands of the Pacific*, and the *Americas* u. *lingered in remote places bis zur introduction of iron in 19th century*. In denTagen des Captain *Cook* in *nearly all the islands* of the Pacific. [335–337]

#### Superstitions handed down from the Stone Age.

In *neolithic ages* the *tombs* were the *habitations* of *the* *death* , *where they were supposed to live*; [this superstition] current in Europe from that remote age to the present time. – Some of the *stones* composing the tombs in Ireland u. Britain, Prussia, Scandinavia, Iceland, Pyrenees etc mit *small round holes* ⦗*„marmites du diable“* *„Teufelssteine“* , *elfstones* etc⦘ intended for offerings to the souls of the dead etc. [338, 339]

*Also continuity between the Neolithic age u. the present day unbroken.* Die section *der small dark non-Aryan farmers u. herdsmen*, die v. Central Asien nach Europa, spread over *Gaul, Spain, British islands* , only known to us as the *Iberic aborigines*; outside [those limits], traces der *Iberic peoples* in *Sicilien, Sardinien, Nordafrika*; left their mark in *Asia Minor* wo *Iberia* (= *Georgia*) wie die Gauls left their name in *Galatia (modern Anatolia)*, south of the Aladag Mountains. Iberic peoples driven from region east of the Rhine durch Celts, diese durch Belgae, diese durch Germans, diese durch Slaves. [340, 341]

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[^lic]: Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben.