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Title: Heft XI (1880–1881): Exzerpte aus James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe. I (Pleistozän und Eiszeit)
Description: Marx’ Exzerpte aus James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe. A Geological Sketch (London 1881), im Heft XI, erster Teil: Höhlenjäger, Fluss- und Lössablagerungen des Pleistozäns, Glazial- und Interglazialzeiten, Klima und Geographie des Pleistozäns, Neolithikum, Bronze- und Eisenzeit.
Author: Karl Marx
Date: 1881
URL: https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/originales/1881%20Heft%20XI.%20Exzerpte%20aus%20Geikie%2C%20Prehistoric%20Europe.%20I
---


*Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).[^lic] [Traducción al español](https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/1881%20Cuaderno%20de%20extractos%20XI.%20Extractos%20de%20Geikie%2C%20la%20Europa%20prehist%C3%B3rica.%20I.%20El%20Pleistoceno%20y%20el%20per%C3%ADodo%20glaciar)*

## James Geikie: Prehistoric Europe. London 1881.

*Aeltest Stonealter, Stein-Horn-Holz-Knochen implements* etc

### I) Cave Hunters.

Gegen *Dawkins* Theorie, dass die cave Bewohner *Eskimos*. Verwirft dessen Theorie – gegeben um das pêle-mêle der in der earlier *Pleistocene Period* gefundnen Groups v. Pflanzen- u. Thierresten zu erklären, die hochnördlichem, temperate u. südlichem Clima angehören) von jährlichen migrations of men u. animals je nach Sommer- od. Winterseason (Wandrungen, die *die Pflanzen at all events* nicht hätten mitmachen können. Erklärt die Sache durch *great changes* (alternative, u. allmählich at same time) oder periodical epochs of climate during the *Pleistocene Period*.

Sieh über *range of temperature* – Unterschied zwischen Winter u. Sommer – in *Nordamerika u. Nordasien* im Gegensatz zu Europe’s; hence the *regions* of the *treeless zone* (*„barren* *grounds“*, u. tundra) wo *mosses u. lichens* die *prevailing* vegetation, u. next *to these grasses, sedges, rushes u. dwarf willows*; d. immediately south of the *„barrens“* of North America and the *„tundras“ of Siberia* comes the *belt of Arctic forests*, fast nur composed of *coniferous trees*, forming a zone 15° to 20° in *breadth* *(p. 35 sq.)*

*Cave at Brixham (Torbay)* and the more famous *Kent’s Hole* or *cavern* (near *Torquay*); *Victoria Cavern* , near *Settle* in *Yorkshire* etc [76–120]

»In *Kent’s Cave* the *implements* obtained from the lower stages were of a much ruder description than the various objects detected in the *uppercave-eart* and the black-band. Sehr lange Zeit muss verstrichen sein zwischen der *Bildung der lower u. upper Palaeolithic beds in that cave*. Same phenomena in several of the bone-caves in *Belgium* and *France*; daher these caves were tenanted in *late Palaeolithic times* by tribes considerably farther advanced than the savages who occupied them at an earlier date.« (p. 116)

All the evidence conspires to show that towards the close of the *Old Stone Age* the *climate of Europe* was *cold and arctic*, so that animals now met with only in northern regions, or at high altitudes in alpine districts, occupied the low grounds as far north as Périgord in France. The folk of that closing period lived very much in the same way as the Eskimo live now, fishing in cold waters and hunting [in] the „barren grounds“; the refuse of their feasts was allowed to accumulate on the floor of their dwelling places ⦗die nicht so disintegrated v. wegen der Kälte, also nicht so *stinking* wie der Mist bevor *unsern*! Bauernhäusern⦘ . »Feasted round their fires on reindeer-flesh, or split up the bones and sucked the juicy marrow. At other times, when *reindeer hunting* unsuccessful, content to *catch such fish as they could in the rivers*, or to capture *lemmings, weasels, water-rats*, and other small animals and birds. … Seem *to have had no domestic animals*, nor to have known *anything of agriculture*; *potter’s art unknown*; *most characteristic* of *the reindeer-hunters* … *their love of art*, a characteristic which, as shown by the *living Eskimo, may co-exist with a very low state of civilisation*.« (117)

In *the Victoria Cave at Settle* … we discover that after the land had been for a long time occupied by *hyaenas, elephants, hippopotamuses* and other animals, a *cold climate supervened*, and a *great glacier crept down the valley of the Ribble*; and it was not till long after that glacier had melted away that *Neolithic* man entered Yorkshire. (119[, 120]])

Ebenso *Belgian caves* afford *abundant proof of the break or hiatus that divides in Europe the Palaeolithic from the Neolithic age*. (120.)

### II) River-Deposits of the Pleistocene Period.

In *England and the Continent the fauna so characteristic of the older cave-accumulations has left its remains in certain superficial deposits of loam, sand, and gravel*; mit diesen *osseous remains found immense numbers of worked flints* of the same general character as those which occur in our caves. Mr. *Boucher de Perthes* of Abbeville vor mehr als 20 years insisted upon his discovery of *„antediluvian“* human implements and mammalian remains in *undisturbed natural accumulations of loam, sand, and gravel near Abbeville*. (er wollte aber Sache durch *Sündfluth* erklären) *Professor Prestwich* (some 20 years ago) gab zuerst wissenschaftliche Erklärung der „finds“ des *Boucher de Perthes*. [3, 4, 121–124]

Die river-deposits nach Prestwich *später als das Glacial age*. Was betrifft den origin of the valley-gravels – *high- u. lowlevel deposits* – he showed durch examination der gravels u. loams in vielen Thälern von Nord Frankreich and Süd-England to *have been formed by riveraction*; shown by the *pebbles themselves*, all of which derived from the *strata in which the valleys are excavated*; they had also travelled in the same direction as the present streams; the fluviatile origin ferner erhärtet dadurch, dass *land- and freshwatershells* often met with in *high*- and *low-level deposits* alike, while *marine remains*, ausser in unmittelbarer Nähe des Meers wanting. ([125,] 126) Von diesen old *river-drifts* flint implements of undeniable human workmanship obtained, associated with them, in selben undisturbed strata of sand and gravel, numerous remains of the Pleistocene mammalia. [126]

Eines der merkwürdigsten characteristics dieser *gravel- u. loam-beds die Höhe* die *sie oft über streams u. rivers erreichen*; traced manchmal *150 feet über bottom der valleys* in *patches* and often in *more or less continuous sheets. Beweist, dass die rivers at one time flowed at elevations* which they do not now attain even during the heaviest floods. Prestwich has shown that the *formation of the higher gravel-terraces* unmöglich due *to the action* of *the present rivers under existing conditions*. (126, 127)

*Conclusion* des Prestwich ⦗zugleich evidence der *enormen Zeit* verflossen seit Bildung jener *river-drifts* (also der Pleistocene Period to which they belong)⦘ : the *gravels laid down by the rivers during the gradual excavation of their valleys*, hence *that the gravels indicate the various levels at which the rivers formerly flowed*. The highlevel terraces ⦗sind aber in der That meist keine terraces in the true sense of the word⦘ are *those which the streams formed when flowing 100 od. 150 feet higher than at present*, while the *lower terraces on the slopes of the valleys mark out the various stages in the slow process of excavation*. (p. 127)

Obgleich Prestwich’s Erklärung sehr weite application findet in den phenomena presented by the Pleistocene valley-gravels through Europe generally, erklärt sie nicht den *origin gewisser gravelly accumulations which have yielded both mammalian remains and Palaeolithic implements*; so namentlich *those sheets of coarse gravel and detritus spreading often continuously over wide districts* of *South England*; are *not confined to valley-slopes*, but *sweep up and over hilltops*, *valley-partings*, *and water-sheds*; extend *across plateaux and platforms between separate valleys*; u. altogether *bear little or no relation to the present drainage-systems of the country*. Können nicht have been laid down by rivers in the process of deepening their valleys; ihre Distribution zeigt, dass das country had already received much *of its present contour before the deposits were scattered broadcast over the country*; sie sind oft very coarse and rudely bedded, show often a confused and tumbled appearance, consisting of *sand, grit, angular débris and blocks*, and well-rounded stones, *promiscuously heaped and jumbled together*. Ausserdem besonders noteworthy, *many of the stones are often standing on end, not lying in the position* they ought to have assumed if *laid down by ordinary river-action* (p. 140)

*Darwin* in Brief an *Geikie v. 1876* u. *später wieder 1880* erklärt die Sache so: „I need say nothing *about the character* *of the drift there* (nämlich *near Southampton*) which includes Palaeolithic celts. It *covers the whole country*, even *plain-like surfaces* almost irrespective of the present outline of the land. The *coarse stratification* has sometimes been disturbed … *‚the larger stones* *often standing on end‘*, which *is the point* that has struck me so much. Not *only moderately-sized angular stones, but small oval pebbles often stand vertically up*, in a manner which I have never seen *in ordinary gravel-beds*. … Selbst in my own *neighbourhood* *(Beckingham, Kent)* in the *stiff red clay* , full of *unworn flints*, over *the chalk*, which (the clay) is no doubt the residue left undissolved by rain-water. In this clay *flints as long and as thin as my arm* often stand perpendicularly up, and I have been told by the *tank-diggers* *that is their ‚natural position‘* . I presume that this *position may safely be attributed to the differential movement of parts of the red clay*, as it *subsided very slowly from the dissolution of the underlying chalk*, so that the *flints arrange themselves in the lines of least resistance*. The similar but less-strongly marked arrangement of the *stones in the drift near Southampton* makes me suspect that it also *must have slowly subsided*, and the notion crossed my mind that *during the commencement and the height of the Glacial Period great beds of frozen snow accumulated over Southern England*, and that *during the summer gravel and stones were washed from the higher land over its surface*, and in *superficial channels*. The *larger streams may have cut right through the frozen snow*, and *deposited gravel in lines at the bottom*. But at *each succeeding autumn*, when the *running water failed*, I imagine that *the lines of drainage would have been filled up with blown snow, afterwards congealed*; and that *owing* to the *great surface-accumulations of snow* it would be a mere chance, *whether the drainage, together with gravel and sand*, would follow the same lines during the next summer. Thus … *alternate layers of frozen snow and drift in sheets and lines* would ultimately have covered the country to a great thickness, *with lines of drift probably deposited in various directions at the bottom by the larger streams*. As the climate became warmer *the lower beds of frozen snow* would have *melted with extreme slowness*, and *during this movement the elongated pebbles would have arranged themselves more or less vertically*. The *drift would also have been deposited* almost *irrespective of the outline of the underlying land*. When I viewed the country, I could not persuade myself *that any flood, however great, could have deposited such coarse gravel over the almost level platforms between the valleys*.“ (p. 141, 142)

### III) Loamy deposits of the Pleistocene Period.

⦗Im Ganzen wendet *Geikie* hier Methode des *Prestwich’s* an, dessen observation *restricted to the* old *river-drifts* of the *South of England u. the North of France* [⦘]

Alle grossen Flüsse Europa’s *fliessen durch Thäler*, mehr od. minder bekleidet more or less continuously mit *sheets* (Tafeln, Platten) of *gravel, sand, and loam* die sich zu *Höhen erheben* weit über dem Bereich der gewaltsamsten Ueberfluthungen moderner Zeit; selbes gilt v. den meisten *tributaries dieser rivers*. Die more widely spread deposits dieser Art bekannt unter dem Namen *»ancient alluvium«, loam, brick-earth* etc in *this country, Löss, Lehm* in *Dtscland, limon, terre à briques* etc in *France* and *Belgium*. Die Geologen haben im allgemeinen behandelt den origin dieser *great loamy* deposits der Pleistocene period *getrennt* von dem der *ancient gravels*, with which the former are usually associated in the valleys. Nach *Geikie* they belong to *the same series*. [143, 144]

*German Löss:* Gelber od. blass-grau-brauner, feinkörniger, mehr od. minder homogener, consistent, *non-plastic loam*, consisting von *intimate admixture von clay u. Kalkcarbonat*; oft minutely perforated durch *lange, vertikale root-like tubes* lined with carbonate of lime – eine Struktur die dem Löss aufdrückt *starke Tendenz to cleave or divide in vertical planes*. So präsentirt er gewöhnlich *bluffs or cliffs* upon the margins of streams and rivers which intersect it; enthält oft *concretions* oder *nodules* of irregular form, known im Rheindistrict als *»Lössmännchen«* od. *»Lösspüppchen«* u. im Donau District als *»Lösskindeln«*. *Land shells* u. die *remains of land animals* die gewöhnlichsten *Fossilien des Löss*, manchmal aber auch *freshwater shells* u. *[the bones of]* *freshwater fish*. Dies der *typical character des Löss*. Er ist nicht immer *unstratified mass*. T *Oft lines of bedding, a foot or more apart*, to be traced running *horizontally across the face of a deep cutting*; u. now u. again *intercalated layers u. laminae of sand* make their appearance; manchmal auch encountered *stones*, isolated or in little patches and groups, u. an Stellen wo *die Accumulation* abuts *against a cliff or rock-slope*, it not unfrequently contains *intercalated lines and layers of fragments which* have evidently been *detached from the adjacent rocks* and *embedded during its formation*. Again der Löss einiger Gegenden *verliert in bedeutendem Umfang sein carbonate of lime*, wird mehr *argillaceous* u. passes *into a plastic clay* … Oder it *graduates into a loam*, vom Löss nur unterschieden durch *Geringheit od. gänzliche Abwesenheit von kohlensauerem Kalk*. Da der *Löss* ein *Deposit mechanischen u. nicht chemischen Ursprungs*, such changes im Charakter der Accumulation zu gewärtigen. Die gegebne Erklärung v. *Löss* (dem typischen) passt more particularly to *that of Central Europa* – to *the great Löss deposits der Thäler des Rheins, der Rhone u. der Donau*. In *Nordfkreich* u. *Süd England* die accumulations, *geologisch* entsprechend, oft sehr verschieden vom Löss der Rheindistricte u. dasselbe gilt von den *vast sheets of loam overspreading the south of Russia*. *Allen diesen Deposits* ein Character *in common – »their extremely fine texture*; as *a rule they form admirable soils*, and it is to *them that many of the most productive regions of Europe owe their fertility«* (p. [144,] 145)

*Rhein u. its tributaries: typischer Löss*. Von den *margins der modern alluvial flats* which form the *bottoms of the valleys* it *rises to a height of 200 and 300 feet* über die streams, sweeping up the *slopes of the valleys, and imparting a rich productiveness*; breitet sich aus *vom Rheinthal selbst* in all the *tributary valleys* – those des *Neckar, Main, Lahn, Mosel* u. *Meuse* *(Maas)* ; it *lies thickly in the valleys u. dying off upon the higher slopes u. plateaux*; erscheint ebenso in vielen Thälern der *Fulda, Werra, Weser* u. *the upper reaches des great basin der Elbe*; so in *Frankreich*, in den Thälern der *Rhone, Sâone, Seine, Garonne etc*

*Löss keineswegs restricted to valleys and depressions in the surface of the ground*; in ihnen erhält er *seine grösste Dicke*, aber *extensive accumulations* often to be followed *far into the intermediate hilly districts* and *over the neighbouring plateaux*. So *Odenwald, Taunus*, *Vogelgebirg* u. andre *upland tracts cloaked with Löss up to a considerable height*.

Kommen wir zum *drainage-system der Donau*, so letzterer u. many seiner *tributaries fliessen durch vast tracts of Löss*; *Lower Bavaria thickly coated* with it; hat grosses development in *Böhmen, Upper and Lower Austria u. Mähren* – wo *Löss rises to an elevation of 1300 feet* –; ebenso abundant in *Ungarn, Galizien*, *Bukowina* u. *Siebenbürgen*. Von den *Danubian flatlands* u. den *low grounds of Galicia*, it stretches into the *valleys of the Carpathians, up to* heights *of 800 and 2000 feet*; in some cases to 3000, 4000 u. 5000 feet. Dies in the *Upper valleys of the Northern Carpathians*. In *Roumania* Löss auch plentiful, has not been observed *South of the Balkans*. Im *Osten v. den Karpathen* – in den Gebieten des *Dniestr, Dnieper, Don* Löss ersetzt durch *„Tschernozem“*.

Upon the *higher slopes* u. *plateaux* Löss seldom exceeds *a few feet in thickness*. [145–147]

Von wegen der *fauna typical to the löss*: Dr. *Nehring* : „*Die quaternären Faunen von Thieden und Westeregeln, nebst Spuren* des *Vorgeschichtlichen Menschen*.“ *(Archiv für Anthropologie Bd X u. XI. 1878)* ⦗*Thiede* liegt nordwest von *Wolfenbüttel* in *Braunschweig* u. *Westeregeln* about *midway zwischen Magdeburg u. Halberstadt*.⦘ The *lower beds of Westeregeln* have yielded traces of man, [such as] *flint-flakes, charred wood, heaps of smashed or crushed bones of various animals* etc. [147, 150]

*Ueber die human relics im Löss of Central Europe* (p. 150–51)

Der Löss ruht fast stets *upon gravel* – dies die *rule in valleys*, der unquestionable of fluviatile origin – of same age and origin as the ancient river-gravels of North France … *Fauna* represents all the 3 groups, *northern, temperate u. southern*; now and again *valley-löss* underlaid by a *kind of lignite or brown coal*. … Aber wenn löss followed to levels higher than those reached by the highest valley gravels, it *may* come *directly to rest upon glacial deposits*.

*Der löss der French river-valleys* im Ganzen ähnlich dem des *Rheins* u. andrer Thäler v. Central Europa; bes. dies Fall mit der *Rhone*. Im *Norden Frankreichs* behält Löss zwar bei den Character *of a sandy calcareous loam*, wird aber häufig more or less *argillaceous* u. geht selbst in *regular brick-earth* über od. besteht auch aus *succession* von *alternate layers of brickearth* u. *calcareous loam*, od. eigentlichem Löss. In den *Thälern der Seine, Somme* u. anderer nördlicher Ströme, it *overlies those ossiferous* u. *implement bearing gravels*, benamst by French geologists as *diluvium gris* u. *diluvium rouge*. ⦗Weiteres *darüber p. 153* : »Das so-called *„red diluvium“*, found resting directly *upon the chalk over wide areas* in *Northern France*, is *not of fluviatile* *origin* *at all*, but simply *the insoluble residue of red earth u. flint* which has resulted from long-continued action of *acidulated rain-water* upon the chalk. Dies „red diluvium“ may be followed through extensive districts in every country where *Cretaceous strata are well developed*. Aber der *reddish-coloured gravel and earth* that *overlie the gray diluvium of the valleys and valley-slopes* are *fluviatile*—their *colour* and present condition *being the results of chemical changes*, which have *influenced the calcareous gray diluvium in the same way as they have acted upon the Cretaceous strata*. Manchmal wahrnehmbar *änhliche Entfärbung* im *upper part* des löss, which in such cases bietet den falschen Schein to be *overlaid by a later deposit* of *red earth*; [this appearance] is due to the *chemical action* of *acidulated water soaking into the löss from the surface*. Die Linie zwischen the *red earth* u. dem *yellow löss* meist sehr uneven, ausnahmsweis it *may approach horizontality*, when *the acid water has been stopped in its descent by some lamina or layer* of *impermeable argillaceous matter.«* [⦘]

*Löss or loam cloaks* all the *plains or plateaux of the North and north-east of France up to 600 or 700 feet über dem Meer*. In the valleys it reposes *upon gravels*, aber *über dem Niveau*, wozu diese sich erstrecken, liegts entweder auf s.g. „diluvium rouge“ od. *upon the basement-rock*, which in those regions is called chalk. Der *French löss* besteht gewöhnlich aus *einer obern, sehr feinkörnigen, non-calcareous reddish portion (terre à brique)* extensively used for *brickmaking* u. a *lower lighter-coloured portion (limon grossier)*, coarser, charged mit broken or cracked flints, which have *not been rolled about*, are *sharply angular* u. have evidently *not travelled far*. [152–154]

*Narrow zone of löss* which extends in *Northern Germany* along the *southern margin* of the Great *„Northern Drift“*.

In einem stimmen Geologen im allgemeinen überein: *that the löss of the great valleys of Central Europe consists for the most part of Glacial Mud*. [161]

*„Tchernozem“* or *»black-earth«* vast tracts *in Russia*, wogegen *the same geological horizon* of the *löss area* in *Central and Western Europe* – inconsiderable. *Black-Earth* extends over the *Steppes and lowlying plateaux* that border on *Black Sea, Sea of Azov* u. *Caspian Sea*, and *the depressed area to the North of the Caspian*, with a breadth from *North to South* von 200–300 to nearly *700 miles*. Sie continuirt mit little interruption v. den *regions bewässert durch Pruth and Dniester* bis zu *den foothills der Ural mountains, zwischen Ufa u. Orenburg*, comprises so an *area of not less than 500,000 □ miles*, hat hier durchgehend a singularly uniform character; wie der *löss* of *Central Europe* hat die *Schwarzerde extremely fine texture*, is usually devoid of wellmarked stratification; varies in *colour* from *dark brown* to *black*, and in thickness *from a foot or 2, bis 20 u. manchmal 60 feet*. Nach den Analysen von *Phillips, Daubeny u. Payen* , given by *Murchison* u. his associates *Verneuil* u. *Keyserling* blackearth composed of *siliceous sand* (about 70%) u. *organic matter* (about 7%), the *latter containing beinah 2.5% of nitrogen*. Nach Professor *Göbel* , who analysed 2 specimens of black earth von nah bei *Saratof*, one yielded *22%* of *combustible and vegetable ingredients* u. the other *23%*, the former yielding *6.25%, and the latter 14.5% of humic acid*; die andern ingredients [consisted] chiefly of *silica* u. *alumina*, aber während in dem einen specimen nur 4.50%, im andern *30.12% of carbonate of lime*. Nach *Murchison* *black earth* ganz *unfossiliferous*, not with a trace of organism, plant or animal. Aber nach *Göbel* , subjecting one of his specimens to *a mechanical separation*, fand in 100 parts *9.7% stony ingredients* with *„coarse organic remains“* u. *90.3% of fine sifted earth*. Von den 9.7% of coarse-grained matter *4.19%* was made up *of vegetable débris* u. *5.51%* clay; the specimens taken wie er sagt in *Ackerkrume* (mould.) – Nach *Murchison* die black earth „occupies the *centre of a trough*, large as an European Empire, *having the detritus* of *the crystalline and older rocks for its northern*, and the low *granite steppes and Caspian deposits* for its southern limits.“ (p. [157,] 158, 159) It is *found at all levels* up to heights of 300 and 400 feet über den Thälern; *overlies* an einigen places *ancient river-gravels*, während entlang ihrer *nördlichen limits* it appears to *rest upon*, and now and then to be covered by *certain accumulations* of so called *„Northern Drift“*. Die *Materials dieses drift* – nach Murchison and his colleagues– bestehn aus *stones, derived vom Norden, reduced to small size, and mixed with the débris of local rocks as they approach the northern margin of the black earth*, by which deposit they are succeeded, if not overlapped. An einem Platz fanden sie *„erratics“* or *travelled stones of northern derivation superimposed* on the black earth. [159]

*Ansichten v. M. de Mercey* über origin des *limon* of *the plateaux of the North of France*; ist nun der Ansicht, dass die *lower portion* des limon (*limon biéfeux* ou *limon grossier* ) is *of glacial origin*, and that it indicates the *former existence* in *the North of France of an ice-sheet like that which covers Groenland*. … The *upper part* of the deposit *(terre à briques)*, composed of uniformly sized grains sei *result of aqueous levigation*; schulde seinen Ursprung dem washing u. *re-arranging des limon biéfeux*. Der letztere sei accumulirt in the *state of clay*, and along with the *broken flints* formed by action of frost and ice; es sei derived *von destruction* der rocks upon or near which it occurs, and changes its character as these change theirs. It follows all the undulations of the ground – covering *hollows, slopes, u. elevations alike*. *The limon biéfeux*, de Mercey concludes, *is a true glacier mud formed underneath ice* and left *lying upon* the *surface at the time when the glaciers or icesheet were melting away*; is essentially *of local origin*, in its composition always reflects the character of the strata in the immediate neighbourhood of which it occurs. Gegen den Mercey– *E. D’Acy* *(„Le Limon des Plateaux du Nord de la France et les silex travaillés qu’il renferme“* . 1878.) [163–165]

*Originelle »Wind«ansichten* des *Baron Richthofen* über origin des *löss* in seinem Buch über *China*, wo a *deposit similar in all respects to the Rhenish and Danubian löss* covers vast area. *(p. 165–168)*

### IV) Glacial Period.

It cannot be *attributed to any mere elevation of the land*. (p. 228) The glacial phenomena of Europa also reproduced in *North America*; ebenso in *Asia* the *valleys of the Himalaya formerly supported enormous glaciers*, and *traces* of *ice action occur in China* in regions far from being glacial now. … In Europa here and there (also nur locally) *the intensity of the glaciation* may have been *locally* influenced in some measure *by changes* in *the relative level of land and sea*. (230)

Nach Beschreibung der ice action fährt Geikie fort:

We must now glance *at the general character of those aqueous deposits* accumulated upon *certain areas in the low grounds of Europe* contemporaneously with the *erratics, moraines* and *angular débris* of other districts; unter diesen einzuschliessen die *angular gravels* in Southern districts of England, von denen Darwin spricht. – In der *Glacial period »winter«* must have been *very severe* ; aber auch *prevalence of great humidity*. There must have been *excessive evaporation* u. more copious distribution of moisture als jezt auf unsrem Continent, denn viele regions früher bedeckt mit perennial snow have gegenwärtig nur *small rainfall*. Hence wahrscheinlich, dass die *seasons more contrasted than now, less heat reaching our latitudes in winter, but more in summer than now*.

Die *Sommer in Central u. Süd Europa* waren wahrscheinlich *very humid*, u. die *abundance von snow u. ice auf den Bergen* would *chill the air*, so dass, obgleich mehr Hitze direct erhalten von Sonne, zweifelhaft dass climate genial selbst während des warmen Theils des Jahrs. Auf den Bergen u. in den Gegenden covered with ice-sheet, a *large proportion of the moisture* would be *precipitated in the form of snow*. Dennoch during summer *copious rain*, während *enormous quantities of snow melted* u. die *rivers flowing from the ice-sheet* u. the *local glaciers of the mountain-regions* swollen to a prodigious degree; hence to be expected *abundant traces of floods and inundations over all the low grounds of Europe*, to which the swollen rivers could find access. *Collomb ’s* *Berechnungen*, die, gestützt auf die observations von *Dolfus* *u. Desor* *on the Aar glacier in 1844 u. 1854* geben some faint idea of the volume of water discharged from the glaciers of the Ice Age. [230, 231]

The *rivers escaping directly from a glacier* are invariably turbid and discoloured from the *fine mud they hold in suspension*, this *sediment* being derived *from the pounding and grinding of the rocks under the moving ice*. Berechnungen darüber (232)

These *great deposits of löss* covering such extensive areas u. reaching to such heights in the valleys of the *Garonne, Rhone, Saône, Seine, Rhine, Danube, Theiss, Drave, Save* and other rivers flowing from the *mountains of Central and Southern Europe, represent the mud borne down* by *the great inundating waters that escaped* from the ancient glaciers. (233)

Dies nicht der Ursprung aller accumulations genannt *Löss, Lehm, brick-earth* etc; einige *result of subaerial waste*, andre *of chemical action of acidulated water upon cretaceous strata*, and *superficial beds* like these must frequently have been re-arranged, redistributed, and often washed down von higher to lower levels by rain and melting snow. Daher nicht nöthig vorauszusetzen, dass jede *high level accumulation of loam, silt or clay in Nordfkch* of *fluviatile origin*. Die severe *winter frosts* der Glacial period would penetrate some *depth into the ground*, and *tend to disintegrate the rocks* and render these more easily assailable by rain and melting snow. During spring and summer much water would be set free, and *quantities of silt and loam would be transported down the slopes to accumulate in the hollows and depressions*. Und in regions wo der *rockbottom composed of the same strata throughout, the superficial accumulations taking place at the surface* would naturally assume a great sameness of character. Aber so *nicht zu account* für die presence of the wide u. deep masses of löss in solchen Thälern wie denen v. Rhein u. Donau etc. (233)

Der *löss der Rhein- u. Donauthäler* – composed hauptsächlich *of the fine silt derived from the glaciers of the Alps*. … The *Garonne* was flooded by the *melting snow and ice of the Pyrenees*, the *Rhone* by waters coming from the vast icefields of *the Alps*, the *Saône* by those derived from the *Jura*, the *Seine* by the dissolving snow and ice *of the Morvan and neighbouring hilly tracts*. Ebenso *muddy inundations* choked many of the valleys of the *Carparthians*, ebenso received those der *Sau u. Drau* the *drainage of the Eastern Alps*. … in all the river valleys of Central Europe *enormous sheets of gravel and shingle* swept along *the bottoms of the valleys*, the *löss only accumulating in places where the inundating waters* were comparatively tranquil. (236, 37)

Also: »*Löss der Great River valleys of Europe* is merely the *flood-loam der Glacial Period*. The *upland or hill-löss* belongs upon the whole to an earlier date than *that found in the valleys themselves*. It is the *inundation-mud* laid down by the rivers when they *flowed at higher levels* . (das Upper Löss) Nachdem diese *rivers had deepened their beds sufficiently*, their flood-waters were unable to *overflow upon the plateaux*, and the *deposition of löss* was then confined to the *valleys themselves*. *The löss* and the *ancient rivergravels* are also, wie Prestwich maintained, *merely terms of one and the same series*.« (239)

Bisher blos erwähnt die *flooded rivers descending von Alpine Regions*; aber was *mit dem Wasser* which must have *escaped from* the ice all along *the borders of the massive mer de glace* which extended in Germany down to *50° parallel* *of latitude*? A very large proportion of the water derived from the melting of that *ice-sheet in Northern Europe* would find its way by *underground channels* along the natural slope of the ground into the *Polar Ocean* and *the basins* of the *Baltic and the Northsea*. (239, 240)

A very large section of the extensive area which is drained by the *Dnieper, Don, Volga* u. their numerous affluents, was covered by the *mer de glace*. (241) Es ist grad in the *low-lying regions of Southern Russia* wo the *most extensive deposits of loam in Europe*; diese *form the subsoils of the Steppes* – those *vast, grassy plains* which, with the drainage-area of the Don, the Dnieper and the Volga, comprise nearly *200 millions of acres*. Der soil generally *a more or less rich dark or black loam yielding heavy crops when it is cultivated*; würde bear an *abundant forest-vegetation* if not for *the great droughts of summer* scorching the ground and forbidding the approach of trees; principal vegetation der Steppes – *grasses* oft 5–6 feet high. *Murchison* u. his colleagues in ihrer Geology of Russia der Meinung dass die *black earth der steppes* to some extent derived *from the destruction of the black Jurassic shale*, so uniform in its colour over all Northern u. Central Russia ... Meist soll *carbonate of lime* fehlen in Black Earth … Nach *Bischof* der *Jurassic shale* enthält *a large amount of bituminous matter* which would account for the *considerable percentage of organic substance met with in the black earth* … letztre erreicht nie die great *thickness des Rhein- u. Donau-Löss*; zu erwarten dies von Configuration u. Position der regions worüber distributed. Die wide open valleys u. broad plateaux would not permit of the same heaping-up and ponding-back of the flood-waters as must have taken place again and again in Central Europe. Die *route to the South* lay open, and the inundation-waters would thus be drawn off more rapidly *than if discharged in a northerly direction*, wo outflow verhindert *nicht nur durch presence des* *ice-glacier* , sondern auch durch *Gefrieren der rivers selbst* (wie heut zu Tag die nach Norden ausfliessenden Flüsse Sibiriens) (242, 43)

*(Boulder-clay = Blockmergel)* [252]

In the maritime districts of *Southern England* and *Northern France* a considerable development of loose superficial accumulations; occur as more or less wide-spread coverings that vary in thickness from a few feet up to many yards, extend from the sea-coast inland to a less or greater distance; heissen in *Südengland* generally *„head“*; hat manchmal appearance of rude bedding, but not such as could be attributed to *subaqueous arrangement*; they consist of a more or less coarse agglomeration of angular *débris*, and large blocks set in a matrix of earthy matter. Nie nach Godwin-Austen darin »waterworn stones or pebbles«, meist ganz unfossiliferous, ausnahmsweis drin several land- u. freshwater-shells. Die stones and *blocks of local origin*, have generally not travelled far, not a single fragment belongs to other drainage-areas than that in which any given mass of „head“ occurs. Keine *such accumulation* kommt jetzt vor (bildet sich nicht) in den districts wo *„head“* occurs. Godwin-Austen schliesst daher, that the *„head“ has resulted from long-continued subaerial waste under severer conditions of climate than now obtain in* regions *bordering on the English Channel*. (p. 224)

*Prestwich* gegen Godwin-Austen’s Ansicht, who regards it (the „head“) „as a *talus* (Abdachung) formed at *high altitudes under* cold“. „If the deposit were a mere *subaerial* accumulation it would in all cases be in *close connection with the slope or cliff supplying the materials*, would *dip from it at a high angle*, and never be carried far *beyond the range which that angle would subtend* …“ Aber z. B. at Chesilton, the escarpment is 400 feet high, the angular *débris* spreads over the ground to *a distance von base of the cliff of 1600 feet*, which, as Prestwich remarks, is „very far beyond that to which any materials falling vom cliff, had it even been originally double the height, could possibly have extended.“ Bei *Portland Bill* der angular *débris* in that neighbourhood extends South for a distance of nearly ¼ mile at the small angle of 4° or 5°. Such *inclinations* **are so slight** that they are quite insufficient to keep loose rubbish or rock in motion; something *more than* the mere *gravity of the stones* was required *to cause them to travel down so gently*. (225) Die *Erklärung aber die Prestwich giebt*, – wobei er annimmt dass das Land erst subjected for some considerable time to the ordinary action of the weather, the low grounds bordering on the Channel were *temporarily submerged* u. der „head“ probably owes its origin to the inundations brought about during the subsequent more or less *sudden emergence of the land* – verwirft Geikie. (l. c.[, 226])

u. a. sagt er dagegen: »deposits similar in all respects to the „head“ occur in many *places far enough removed from the sea*. They *are forming now* in *the Rocky Mountains* and other alpine regions. Thick sheet-like accumulations of angular blocks, *débris*, and rubbish, *not of morainic origin*, may be observed *covering [low]* *grounds* in *the Southern Uplands* u. *Northern Highlands of Scotland* in places where they have long ceased to accumulate« … the „head“ is due, wie Austen says to „the action of severe climatic conditions“, u. zwar diese conditions, sagt Geikie, gab ice age. … Besides *hard frosts*, the „head“ betrays the former action of *névé*, of melting snows and floods. (226) the regions in which the „head“ occurs are just *those districts* which were never overflowed by the *ice-sheet*, and consequently their *subaerial deposits* have been left undisturbed, while those of glaciated regions have been swept away; the loose *débris* which occurs in such countries as Scotland being merely the *subaerial waste accumulated since the ice vacated the* *low grounds* and vanished from the mountain-glens. It is, as Austen has remarked, the representative of the *glacial deposits of the North*. (227)

In *Cornwall*, wo the *„head“* well developed, finden wir at *the base of certain postglacial deposits torrential gravels* worked in order to *get at the lumps of tin-ore* which they contain. This tin-bearing accumulation composed of a confused mass of sand, gravel, pebbles, blocks, and boulders, some of which wogen 200 lbs u. mehr, such a deposit just as might have been formed by torrents more or less suddenly discharged von melting snow and ice … The „head“ will represent the angular *débris moved forward by the action of frost*, melting snows etc, while the *stanniferous gravels* will denote *that portion of the subaerial waste* which was swept into gullies and stream-courses, and hurried along by the tumultuous waters of spring and summer. (228)

*W. C. Kerr* ( *»Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina«* v. I, p. 156) sagt: »Very often *remains of an ancient soil*, with leaves, fruits, and stumps of trees *in situ*, together with elytra of beetles, squirrel-gnawed hickory-nuts, etc, are found buried under depths of 15 or 20 feet of these *superficial accumulations* ⦗sheets of angular *débris*, rock-rubbish, and coarse gravels found in positions where no such deposits are now taking place⦘; they often *mask to a considerable extent the contour of the underlying strata*, so that the *present ravines are excavated partly in the superficial drifts*, and partly „along or *across the crests of the old*buried *hills and rocky ledges*.“ Such is the *general character of the gold-bearing beds* extensively spread over the flanks u. low ridges der *Uwharrie Mountains*.« Their position and the carry of their *included rock-fragments*, some of which have *travelled 6 miles, show that they must have descended from* the mountains. Nach *Kerr*, *»the force which impelled them* cannot have been *water*, „*neither are they moraines* – i. e. *accumulations at the base of descending ice masses*“; they „*have crept down the declivities of the hills and mountains* exactly as a glacier descends an alpine valley, *by successive freezing and thawing of the whole water-saturated mass, both the expansion of freezing* and *gravitation contributing to the downward movement*; and with each thawing and advance *the embedded stones and gold particles dropping a little nearer the bottom*. If these beds are followed down the slopes into the valleys and bottoms of the streams to the *floodplain*, they will be found to *have changed character with every rod of advance, all the gold having been dropped either on or near the foot of the slopes*, the *pebbles being more exclusively quartz*, and more and more rounded, and accumulated in a stratum at the bottom of the bed, or constituting the whole of it.“« (p. 229, 230)

* * *

### V) Interglacial Period.

Zuerst *1854 Morlot* *(Schweizer* in *Bullet. de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Natur.* 1854): die alten glaciers der Schweiz hätten lang die *low grounds* derselben eingenommen, hätten dann sich wieder *zurückgezogen* zu *den mountain-valleys*; worauf streams u. rivers wieder eroded u. re-arranged the *ancient bottom-moraines* and other *débris* left strewed over the deserted bed of the *mer de glace*. Nach beträchtlicher Zeitperiode seien die glaciers wieder vorgerückt, *here and there ploughing out the superficial river-alluvia*, and *elsewhere burying them under a newer accumulation of boulder-clay* or *moraine profonde*. (p. 252) Viele Jahre nicht beachtet. *Ramsay* unterdess ( *Quart. Journ. Geolog. Society*, v. VIII, p. 371, vom selben ditto in: *»The old glaciers of Switzerland and Northwales«* ) suchte zu erklären die *succession of changes in North Wales* während des Ice Age dadurch dass a *period of great glaciation* ⦗due to a great elevation of the land⦘ was succeded by *a period of submergence* *when the sea rose to 1300 feet* or thereabout. Dieser grossen submergence folgte wieder re-emergence u. re-advance der glaciers which, grinding down the valleys swept out the maritime deposits accumulated in the interval of depression. Es entsprach dies der damals allgemein angenommenen Theorie *Lyell’s* that all the *vicissitudes des climate witnessed by the earth’s crust* resulted only *from changes in the distribution of land and sea* . [253]

Einige Jahre später entdeckt, dass die *lignites of Switzerland intercalated zwischen glacial deposits*, bestätigte Morlot’s Ansicht. *1863 A. Geikie* (brother des James) *(„On the Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland“, Trans. Glasg. Geol. Society)* beschrieb Anzahl von sections in *various parts of Scotland* zeigend ähnliche intercalation von *freshwater beds u. peat in boulderclay*. He pointed out that *these beds having been formed upon a land-surface*, indicated that the *boulder-clay* was not the result of one great catastrophe (submergence) „but *of slow and silent*, *yet mighty, forces acting sometimes with long pauses* throughout a vast cycle of time.“ *Morlot* had pointed out that „*the idea of general and periodical eras of refrigeration for our planet connected perhaps with some cosmic agency*, may eventually prove correct.“ The view received in Lyellite England no support.

*1864:* *Croll’s* Paper: *„On the Physical Cause of the Change of Climate during geological Epochs“* . [253, 254]

| *Interglacial Beds of Scotland:* | *Sections at Hailes Quarry, near Edinburgh* (2 miles off); alternating arctic and genial climatic conditions. |
|---|---|
| *England:* | *Succession of glacial and interglacial deposits; Palaeolithic implements in interglacial deposits at Brandon, Suffolk.* Changes of climate during glacial Period in British area. |
| *Scandinavia:* | *Glacial Deposits*; ancient *strand-linier* or *horizontal rockterraces of Norway*, their *possible interglacial age*. |
| *Northern Germany:* | *Interglacial deposits; Section at Rixdorf on the Spree; Section at Dömitz*, on the Elbe. *Interglacial beds* at *Tempelhof*; *Boring near the* *Schwielow Sea* ; *traces of interglacial submergence;* *Glacial and interglacial deposits of Saxony and Holstein* . |
| *Denmark:* | Interglacial deposits. |
| *Northern Europe*: | Sand, gravel, and superficial erratics. [252] |

Folgen dann: *Interglacial deposits of Switzerland*; interglacial river-terraces at *Camischollas*; Glacial and interglacial deposits near *Thoron*; at *Dürnten and Utznach*; at *the Bois de la Batie*. *Interglacial beds of Northern Italy*; ancient glaciers of the *Lago d’Iseo*; Lacustrine deposits of the *Val Borlezza*; Deposits in the *Basin of Gandino*; Lignites of *Leffe*; Lacustrine Deposits in *Val Adrara* and *Val Forestro*; Deposits in the Upper *Val D’Arno*.

*Interglacial Deposits of Central France*; Pumiceous conglomerate and associated deposits at *Perrier, near Issoire*; Glacial and interglacial deposits in the *valleys of the Ain and the Rhone*; *Successive glacial epochs in the Vosges mountains; 2 glacial epochs in the Pyrenees; Interglacial deposits at Gibraltar; Probable interglacial age of similar* deposits in *Malta*. [297]

Geikie schliesst von den facts adduced, dass die *s.g. Glacial Period* interrupted *more than once* (oft 4 times) by *interglacial epochs of long continuance*, during which the *Pleistocene mammalia* occupied the low grounds vacated by the *glaciers* and the *great mer de glace*; elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses living then as far north as England and Northern Germany. *Palaeolithic man* was also an *interglacial resident in England and Switzerland*, and doubtless of many other parts of Europe at the same time … Wie concluded dass die *Pleistocene river-deposits, with their Alpine and arctic fauna*, must have been contemporaneous with the *former much greater extension of snowfields and glaciers in Europe*, so the *laurels and fig trees* of *Northern France*, and the *hippopotamuses and elephants* so generally distributed *through the Pleistocene beds of Northwestern Europe, must be synchronous mit flora u. fauna of interglacial ages*. (330)

### VI) Climatic and Georgaphical distribution of Pleistocene Period.

*Pleiocene* *Period*: Climatic and geographical conditions *während selber*; *gradual change of climate u. commencement of* *Ice Age* ; während letzteren *modification of fauna and flora*. *Geographical conditions in Pleistocene age; land-connection between Europe and Africa; continental condition of British area; dry land in English Channel*. *Pleiocene Strata, human relics* in selben; *cut bones in Italian Pleiocene*; *Miocene Strata, human relics* in same; *At beginning of last interglacial epoch: geographical conditions in Europe; migrations of plants and animals; character of interglacial climate*; at *climax of last interglacial epoch:* geographical conditions; gradual deterioration of climate; geographical conditions towards *close of last interglacial and beginning of last glacial epoch*. *Last glacial epoch:* Migrations of plants and animals; *final disappearance of great glaciers* etc. *Distribution* *of interglacial deposits*. *Interglacial age of Paläolithic man and mammalia of Southern group.*

Vorhin noch gewiesen, dass die *cave-* u. *river-accumulations* in der That *synchronous mit den glacial u. interglacial deposits*; all laid down during one and the same long period, die characterised durch several extraordinary changes of climate, and certain considerable modifications in the outline of sea and land. *„Pleistocene Period“* also bei *Geikie* identisch mit dem was sonst *Ice Age or Glacial Period* genannt. (331, 32)

Nach Geikie *»the manufacture and use of Palaeolithic implements«* – u. aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach die *existence of Palaeolithic man* – *»came to an end during the last glacial period«, überlebten also nicht die Pleistocene period*. (p. 360)

To *demonstrate the post-glacial age of Palaeolithic man*, we must show that *his relics and remains occur in true post-glacial deposits* – that is to say, *in beds which have accumulated since the disappearance of the last great extension of glacier-ice in Europe*. Aber there is *no case on record of such an occurrence*. Neither of Palaeolithic man nor of the southern mammalia – elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses etc – *has a single trace been met with in any post-glacial deposit*. The most recent accumulations in which such traces appear are clearly of *interglacial age*. (p. 361)

* * *

### VII) Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages.

Difficulty of ascertaining the *relative antiquity of Neolithic relics*. (in *Europe*) (363) Letztere viel zahlreicher als die *paläolithischen*; letztere *restricted* to *caves* in various countries u. certain *alluvial deposits* in *France* u. *South of England*, weniger zahlreich in *Deutscld, Spanien, Italien, Griechenland*. Dagegen die *weapons, implements, and ornaments der Neolithic times* strewn broadcast über Continent, *von den Ufern des Atlantic bis zu den Grenzen* v. *Asien*, u. von *Scandinavien u. Russia bis Mediterranean* . – Archäologen suchen das *comparative Alter neolithischer implements zu bestimmen durch den Character ihrer workmanship*. Aber mit den *schönst shaped u. hoch polished specimens of stone work* finden sich *rudest* u. simple *implements* so associated dass sie offenbar beide used durch ein u. dasselbe Volk. Selbst wo in one particular „find“, z. B. in many *„kitchen-middens“, alle implements* are rude u. simple, können sie, *so far as the evidence of the implements alone* is concerned to the very *closing stage* of *the neolithic age gehören*, statt sehr alt zu sein, nämlich *relics of some poor and comparatively weak tribes* sein die Europa *gleichzeitig* mit stronger u. more advanced tribes bewohnten. Bei *Neolithic age*, zu grossem Theil beraubt *der Hilfe der Geologie*, die indicator in Palaeolithic age; *nur in seltnen Fällen* gefunden *any superposition of later Neolithic upon earlier Neolithic accumulations*; u. selbst wo dies der Fall, scheint die *Differenz in den implements der beiden Stadien* eher hinzuweisen auf *dispossession of one tribe durch andern* als auf progress *of* *one* *particular race*. So protracted das Neolithic age sein mag, unbedeutend verglichen mit *der Zeitlänge der Palaeolithic period*; dies gilt in der That *von Schluss der Palaeolithic period bis heutigen Tag*; die ganze *Post-Palaeolithic period* nur ein moment *verglichen mit den aeons*, während denen die *men of the Old Stone Age* Europa inne hatten. Die Entzifferung der relative antiquity des Neolithic age *mehr Sache des Archäologen als des Geologen* . (kömmt namentlich heraus auf *Vergleichung der various races* of men, deren Reste gefunden) [363–365]

*Kjökken ⦗kitchen⦘ mödingr ⦗dung heaps⦘* *of Denmark*; bestehn meist aus den *shells* edibler Mollusken, wovon the most abundant *oyster, cockle* (Herzmuschel), *mussel* u. *periwinkle*; sind commingled more od. less mit *bones* von *mammals, birds* u. *fish*, u. ebenso *many implements of stone, bone, and horn*, together mit *potsherds*; generally findet man die *middens near the coast* u. bes. an den *shores* des *Lymfjord u. des Kattegat*; scheinen nie an den *Ufern der Nordsee* gefunden zu werden; sie bilden *mounds* oder *banks* v. 3 od. 5 bis 10 Fuss hoch, weit 150–200 feet u. lang manchmal nearly 350 yards. Wo das Ufer niedrig u. shelving, die mounds occur nur wenige feet *above high-tide mark*, aber erreichen *etwas höheres Niveau* wo die coast more abrupt; sie zeigen sehr oft *hollows or depressions on the top* u. solche die excavated worden sind, have *disclosed layers of charcoal* u. *small platforms of flat stones*, die evidently *old hearths*. Wurden zuerst examinirt durch die dänischen savants *Forchhammer* , *Steenstrup* *u. Worsaae* , erklärten sie für *refuse-heaps accumulated round the dwellings of some ancient coast-tribe* u. *unterstellten die depressions u. hollows* als indicating the *position of the huts and tents*, während of course die *hearth stones* marked the *sites of old fire-places*. *Immense numbers of implements* obtained v. den middens, alle *ausnahmslos* aus *Stein, Horn, od. Knochen*; *not a single trace of metal* *has* *turned up*, die *flint-implements u. weapons* in *Form* sehr verschieden von den *palaeolithischen*, aber *rudely finished* u. *selten od. nie polirt*. Nur sehr wenige *well-worked implements*, die meisten davon broken or imperfect, gefunden; diese Seltenheit besserer implements beweist nach *Worsaae*, dass die Danish kitchen-middens men *in very early Neolithic times* lebten, bevor great skill in the manufacture of stone implements acquired; nach *Steenstrup* lebten die rude denizens der coast-lands *gleichzeitig* mit weiter entwickelten tribes – *knowing how to grind u. polish their instruments* – occupying the inland districts. Nach *Geikie* (sieh später) they belong probably to a *late Neolithic age*, jedenfalls nicht zu so *early age* wie Worsaae will. [365–367]

*Cockle, mussel, u. periwinkle shells* der middens larger als die der *same mollusks* now auf selber Küste, während *oyster* daselbst jetzt *ganz verschwunden*, dies weist hin auf *frühere salzigere Beschaffenheit der Ostsee*. Die *position der shell-mounds* zeigt that *the relative level of sea and land in the part of Denmark* apparently *unverändert geblieben* to the present day. *Völlige Abwesenheit der shell-mounds along the west coast of Denmark* erklärt durch *fact that das Meer has made great encroachments there* u. shell-mounds dort demolished mit dem ground they rested upon. [367]

Die *fish remains*, gefunden in den shellmounds, schliessen ein die von *Häring*, dorse (Butte), *cod, flounder* u. *Aal*. Von den *Vogelknochen* die most interesting die des *capercailzie* (Auerhahn) u. *great auk* (Alca impennis) (auk = Alk, Papageitaucher); letztre species scheint jetzt extinct. Die *mammalia* most abundantly represented by *stag, roedeer* u. *wildboar*; ausserdem *urus, dog, fox, wolf, marten, otter, porpoise, seal, water-rat, beaver, lynx, wild cat, hedgehog, bear* (ursus arctos), *mouse* u. a *small ox. Dog war domesticated*, shown by fact dass die *parts of bones which dogs will devour mostly absent*. No trace of any other domestic animal wie *ox* (bos taurus), *sheep, goat, or hog*; die *northern mammals der socalled reindeer period* ebenfalls wanting. [367, 368]

Keine *human skulls* found in den mounds, aber wohl in *certain tumuli* u. here u. there in the *peat of Denmark* ; are thought to belong to the *same period*; sind *small, round with prominent ridges over the eyes, facial angle well developed*; more or less *characters analogous to that of the Lapps*. – No *agriculture*; *no use of textile plants* *; coarse hand-made pottery* u. *chipped flints*; denn doubtful ob die few *polished stone implements found* wirklich fashioned von den mound builders u. nicht *conveyed* v. some Nachbar tribes.

Ihre *garments* bestanden wahrscheinlich nur aus *skins of animals* snared or killed in the chase. Die oben erwähnten *mollusks waren wahrscheinlich* auch *largely used for bait*; denn grosse quantities von *Häringsknochen* , von Knochen von *cod* u. andrem *Tiefseefisch* zeigen dass die *fishermen dared to trust themselves in their canoes for some distance from the shore*. In andern Zeiten *jagten* sie, u. der Katalog von *birds* u. *beasts secured* zeigt both *skill, courage u. cunning* . Manchmal they were at straits u. *assen gelegentlich ihre dogs*, bewiesen durch die *bones* (v. dogs) found split, for the sake of the marrow, wie die andrer Thiere. Little, roundheaded people *coiled up under their skin-tents, or squatting round their fires, toasting fishes and roasting bones*, .wie certain coasttribes do up to the present day [368, 369]

Shellmounds ähnlichen Charakters auf den opposite coasts des Kattegat in Scania; in *Schottland* nicht ungewöhnlich, aber sehr verschiednen Alters; in *levels v. 2 od. 3 bis 50 feet or so über Seeniveau*, on the shores of the *Firth of Forth*, of the St. *Andrews Bay, of Forfarshire* (i. e. Angus), *Moray Firth*, in *the Outer Hebrides*, No *shellmounds* found on East *Coast of England*, aus selbem Grund warum nicht auf West coast of Denmark – encroachment of sea upon the land; wohl aber auf *englischer Westküste* u. in Irland. *Delesse* *(Lithologie des Mers de France)* erwähnt at *St. Michel-en-Lherm (coast of Poitou north of La Rochelle) mounds or heaps* of oysters and other shells at 10 mètres above the sea, u. 6 kilomètres von der shore, wahrscheinlich sind sie of nature of kitchen-middens. [369]

*Famous lake dwellings of Switzerland*, described by *Dr. Keller* and others; zeigen beträchtlich mehr advanced Zustand als die kitchen-middens; sie indicate ausserdem *the successive stages wodurch die primitive inhabitants of Switzerland passed from the Neolithic through the Bronze into the Iron Age*.

Nach der Beschreibung *Dr. Keller’s* *(Lake dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe) the first group, Pile dwellings*, die zahlreichsten in *lakes of Switzerland and Upper Italy* .

1) *Pile dwellings* (wo die Piles driven into the bottom of the lakes) nach Keller zeigen während der 3 Ages – *Stone, Bronze* u. *Iron* nur einen Unterschied – im *Bronzage weiter entfernt von shore* u. *deeper in the lakes* than those which belong *to stone age*. Manchmal *large numbers of stones* employed um die Grundlagen der dwellings zu verstärken; nach Keller *brought down in boats* u. thrown down between and around the piles; er erwähnt at *Peter’s Island* in *Lake of Bienne* a boat filled with stone where [it] sunk by too heavy freight.

2) *Frame Pile Dwellings* sehr selten; wo bottom of lake too soft mud to drive the piles directly into them; dort die piles *fixed by a mortise-and-tenon arrangement* (Zapfenlockarrangement) *into split trunks*, lying *horizontally* on the bed of the lake.

*3) Fascine* *(Faschinen)* *Dwellings; substructure of successive layers of sticks or small stems of tree built up from the bottom of the lake till they reached above the lake-level*. Gewöhnlich occur *upright piles*, doch nicht als *support der platform*, sondern als *stays or guides* for the great mass of sticks, built up between and around them.

Die *foundations der lake-dwellings* (wonach Keller sie gruppirt) of course better known als die *superstructures*. Die *Platform*, worauf diese standen, *covered over mit clay*, wahrscheinlich tramped or beaten down upon the rough surface of wood, u. sometimes the clay enclosed a layer of pebbles. The *walls or sides der Hütten* formed of a *wattle- or hurdle-work of small branches woven in between piles or stakes* u. *covered with a thick coating of clay*; nach Keller scheinen alle huts *rectangular* gewesen zu sein; nicht bekannt, ob sie getheilt in *appartments* (several rooms); scheinen *thatched* gewesen zu sein mit *reeds and straw*, deren remains abundantly met with in the lake dwellings. Jede Hütte hatte ihren Herd, bestehend aus *3 or 4 large slabs of stone*; u. v. dem fast allgemeinen Vorkommen of *clay-weights for weaving*, scheint jede mit a loom provided gewesen zu sein.

*Lake dwellings* auch sonst in Europa; ausser *Schweiz u. Italy* in *Baiern, Oestreich, Ungarn, Mecklenburg, Pommern, Frankreich, Wales, Irland u. Schottland*.

Die *„Crannoges“* v. Irland u. Schottland wahrscheinlich rather *artificial islands than dwellings* im vorigen Sinn; kommen nächst in Charakter den *Fascine Dwellings*; manche auch composed of earth u. stones, od. von mixture der letzteren mit branches and stems of trees. – Traces of *log-houses* found in certain *peat-bogs in Ireland*; in various places of *England* curious *pit-like dwellings* or *„hut-circles“*, wovon einige zweifelsohne zu *neolithic* age gehören, andre zu viel späterer Periode. [369–372]

Immense Zahl v. *implements, weapons, fragments of pottery, bones of various animals* gefunden in den débris der old lake dwellings; geht draus hervor: im *neolithic age* die lakedwellers *tilled ground, cultivated wheat u. barley*, die ihr HauptNahrungsmittel gewesen zu sein scheinen; *flax* grown by them, largely employed in *manufacture of cord, netting, ropes, mats, coverings, cloth*; many pieces preserved, show *the skill of the weavers*. Quantity of *potsherds* found on the sites der old dwellings, some *portions showing patterns and ornamentation*; *designs of various cups and vessels* prove, that obgleich *ignorant of the potter’s wheel* , the lake dwellers geschickt in *manipulation of clay*.

Auch *abundance of stone implements*, aber *»flints«* lang nicht so zahlreich wie in den neolithic *„finds“ of Western Europe*; *flint rar* in der Schweiz; sie suchten sich aber sonst Steine heraus die *Zähigkeit mit Härte* verbinden. Häufig *implements of horn, bone, and wood*. *Hauptunterschied* *v. Palaeolithic times: domesticated animals* bei den lake dwellers – *sheep, goat, ox, horse, pig, dog*; some of them *accommodated in stalls* adjoining the huts. In den refuse heaps, accumulirt on the bottom of the lakes underneath u. in unmittelbarer Nachbarschaft der Platforms, gefunden *many remains of wild mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles*, woraus ersichtlich dass die lake dwellers snared and hunted *fox, marten, polecat, wolf, wild cat, beaver, elk, urus, bison, roedeer, stag, boar.* *(elk = Elch, Elenthier)* Unter den *birds*: *Goldadler, Falken, Eulen, starling, crows, pigeon, grouse, stork, heron, crane, coot, gulls, swan, goose, ducks etc*, the *water-birds* predominating. Die *Amphibien u. Fische* alle of common *indigenous origin, wie frog, perch, bleak, pike etc. Keine Spur der characterist. Pleistocene mammalia, Rennthier* scheint unknown gewesen zu sein, obgleich *vorkommend in postglacial u. neolithic accumulations in Britain*. [372, 373]

*Professor Heer* hat gezeigt dass einige der cultivirten *Pflanzen der lakedwellers nicht indigenous*, sondern introduced; so *Triticum turgidum* (ägyptischer Weizen), *hordeum hexastichon* (the six-rowed barley) u. *Silene cretica*, a South European weed, accidentally introduced at same time. Dies zusammen damit, dass *Schwein, Schaaf, Ziege u. wahrscheinlich Ochs* descended nicht von *europ.*, sondern von *asiatischen species*, macht sehr wahrscheinlich dass die *neolithic inhabitants der Schweiz* *ursprünglich vom Osten kamen*, cereals u. domestic animals mit sich bringend. [373, 374]

*Bronze age der Swiss lake dweller:* Uebergang von neolithic zu Bronzage bei ihnen gradually u. peacefully effected; no evidence dass a bronze-using people had invaded Switzerland u. overwhelmed their neolithic inhabitants; vielleicht ersten *Bronzimplements* ⦗actual scarceness of metals in Switzerland⦘ *obtained by barter and imported*; by u. by *the ores* selbst u. nach u. nach lernten sie Manufacture of such (Bronze) implements u. weapons. Aber *gewiss dass stone fortfuhr gleichzeitig mit Bronze angewandt zu werden*. *Pottery des Bronze age* zeigt einigen Fortschritt verglichen mit *neolithischem*, aber *noch nicht in use potter’s wheel*. In den settlements pertaining to the Bronze age *zahlreicher die remains of domestic animals*, wovon geschlossen dass *flocks* u. *herds* zahlreicher geworden. – Das people blieb aber a *race of agriculturists, fishers, and hunters. – Human remains sehr selten* met in den lake-dwellings; sehr wahrscheinlich waren sie *of same type* wie die deren *remains in den zahlreichen tumuli or burial-mounds u. cromlechs* distributed over a wide area of Europe

Die *lake dwellings* continued in use down to the *Iron Age*, u. selbst bis *in Römerzeit hinein*; bewiesen durch das fact, dass *Roman implements found commingled with those of stone and bronze* on not a few old sites.

*Certain crescents of earthenware*, die Keller als sacred emblems des moons phantasirt, nach Lubbock *pillows*, wie auch die *Figians* jetzt noch *wooden pillows or neck-rests* of the same kind brauchen, weil die eitlen Burschen ihre *enormous heads of hair* nicht derangiren wollen. The *very long bronze pins* found mit diesen *„crescents“* zeigen an, dass during Bronze Age *the hair was very long* u. *carefully arranged*. [374, 375]

Unter den zahlreichen memorials der *Neolithic, Bronze u. Iron Ages* – scattered über Europa – die most striking die *barrows, cromlechs, standing stones* u. other *„rude stone monuments“*.

*Examination der barrows* zeigte dass sie grösstentheils *Grabhügel*; gewährten den Archäologen sehr interessante *information über die various people* die successiv das Land bewohnten. Diese alten tumuli gehören *sehr verschiednen ages* an, viele der *Bronze Era*, nicht wenige dem *Eisenalter* u. selbst der *post-Roman period*.

In *Britain 2 Arten tumuli*, the *long barrows* u. die *round barrows*, erstere *neolithisch*, letztre referred theils zu *Bronze-*, theils zu more recent times. Die *people* die constructed the *long barrows »dolichocephalic«* or *„long-headed“ race*, die Constructors der *»round barrows« – »brachycephalic«* od. *„broad-headed“* . Die *„long-heads“ of Britain unbekannt mit Gebrauch von Metall*, scheint eingeführt worden zu sein durch ihre *„broad-headed“ conquerors*, die die round barrows construirten. (Dies also anders als in Schweiz) Die *relics* met in the more ancient tumuli *schlagend marked off in character u. appearance von den rude u. simple relics der Palaeolithic times*. *Ueberbleibsel verschiedner gezähmter Thiere* u. *of handmade pottery* in Neolithic burialplaces gelegentlich gefunden.

Ueber die *„long-heads“*, as representing the *present Basques of Northwestern Spain*, the *swarthy Frenchmen of Aquitaine*, die *small dark Welshmen of Denbighshire u. das darkhaired people in Southwest of Ireland* – in fact all *Celts*, thus dating back in Britain u. France to the close of the Neolithic age; had in Bronze age shock mit Belgae. *(compare Dawkins* *)* [375, 376]

Die *neolithic men* häufig *cave-dwellers*, their hearths u. die débris ihrer Feste gefunden *in many caves* in *England, Belgium, France, Spain* u. other countries; in allen diesen regions die *animal remains* angehörig *eingebornen species* od. solche die *dort in historischer Zeit gelebt*. So, in den *caves der Pyrenees in Ariège*, explored durch *Garrigou* u. *Filhol* found remains of *oxen* ⦗Sieh v. den genannten: *»Age de la Pierre Polie dans les cavernes des Pyrenees Ariégeoises«*⦘, nämlich *Bos primigenius, B. frontosus, B. brachyceros*; a *sheep* gleich dem wie es oft gefunden in den *peatbogs, goat, stag, roebuck, wildboar (Sus scrofa ferus u. palustris), brown bear, wolf, dog, fox, chamois* u. many birds. ⦗*Wild Boar = sus scrofa ferus* u. *palustris*⦘ Selben authors erwähnen zahlreiche facts die auf *cannibalism* hindeuten als custom der Neolithic cave-dwellers of Ariège. Selbes nach *Dr Thurnam* in Britain. *Neolithic peoples* quarrelled, fought, killed wie die *savage tribes of Africa* heutzutag; viele *ihrer implements* können nur have been intended for *weapons of war, fortified dwelling-places*, and *camps*. Sie müssen in *future state* geglaubt haben; zeigt ihre *custom* of *burying weapons, implements, u. ornaments in graves*, u. of placing a *vessel supposed to have contained food beside the dead*. [376, 377]

*Neolithic, Bronze u. Iron Age* – d.h. jede dieser stages in einem Land nicht immer correlate to the stage of contemporary people in other countries. Im Allgemeinen die *Neolithic cavedwellers of Wales, Belgium, Pyrenees* u. other areas, u. die constructors der *»long barrows« in Britain* were *contemporaneous* mit den *Neolithic lake dwellers of Switzerland*. Während hier (Schweiz) Uebergang aus *neolithic* to *Bronze age* graduell u. pacific, sonstwo *those tribes who had possessed themselves with bronze weapons* might now and again *invade* and overcome neolithic people. Z. B. in *North of Scotland* people were living in about same way wie *Danish shell-mound builders, destitute of metallic* *instruments* , *long after the Bronze age had been succeeded by the Iron age*.

Das bisher angegebne bestätigt was früher sich schon zeigte – den absoluten *gap* *that separates neolithic and palaeolithic times*. In allem andern der *Neolithic man* productiv ungleich weiter als der Palaeolithic, *ausser künstlerisch*. There are *no sculptures, no etchings or outline drawings of animals* in Neolithic or Bronze age that can equal the marvellous work of the *reindeerhunters of Périgord u. Pyrenees*. Selbst die drawings der *modern Eskimos* stiff u. poor compared *with the more perfect etchings of the Reindeer period*. – *Neolithic European man* nicht the *lineal descendant* of his palaeolithic predecessor. All evidence points in the opposite direction. *Neolithic man*, when appearing in Europe, *came as an agriculturist* u. *herdsman*; seine *relics u. remains* erscheinen wieder u. wieder *unmittelbar über den Pleistocene deposits* in denen wir *keine Spur weiterer Entwicklung finden* ausser der *represented by the savages who contended mit den extinct mammalia*. Great change hatte unterdess *stattgefunden in fauna u. flora of Europe*. Fast alle *most characteristic southern* *animals* occupying Europe während der letzten interglacial period *verschwanden vor dem close* *der succeeding glacial period*, ein Theil davon retirirte zu südlicheren Climas, andrer starb aus. Selbst die *arctic or northern group*, die at the *climax of the glacial cold* nach dem Süden geflüchtet *wanderte wieder allmälig nach Norden* mit Wiederkehr günstigerer klimatischer conditions. So sobald Neolithic man auf europ. Scene erscheint, war *temperate fauna wieder in Besitz v. Centraleuropa*. *Unser letzter glimpse at Palaeolithic man in Südfrkch*, wo Rennthier u. its alpine u. northern congeners seine Begleiter; unser *first glimpse at neolithic man*, den Nachfolger des erstern, in *Centraleuropa*, von wo northern fauna u. flora bereits verschwunden. [378–380]

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[^lic]: Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben.