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Title: Heft XI (1880–1881): Exzerpte aus James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe. II (Postglaziale Ablagerungen, Schluss)
Description: Marx’ Exzerpte aus James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe. A Geological Sketch (London 1881), im Heft XI, zweiter Teil: die postglazialen und jüngsten Ablagerungen Schottlands, Englands, Irlands und des Kontinents, Klima und Geographie der Postglazialzeit, Schluss und Geikies Tabelle der Sedimentformationen.
Author: Karl Marx
Date: 1881
URL: https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/originales/1881%20Heft%20XI.%20Exzerpte%20aus%20Geikie%2C%20Prehistoric%20Europe.%20II
---


*Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).[^lic] [Traducción al español](https://marxismo.school/archivo/marx-engels/1881%20Cuaderno%20de%20extractos%20XI.%20Extractos%20de%20Geikie%2C%20la%20Europa%20prehist%C3%B3rica.%20II.%20Los%20dep%C3%B3sitos%20posglaciares)*

## [James Geikie: Prehistoric Europe. Fortsetzung]

### VIII) Postglacial u. recent deposits of the British islands.

#### (1) Schottland)

Die *physical conditions of »late glacial times«*: Scandinavian peninsula *submerged for some 600 feet below its present level*; a *cold ocean*, stocked with arctic u. boreal shells, washed *the shores of Scotland*, while large *snowfields* covered the higher grounds and *glaciers* of no mean size in *mountainvalleys*, even in some cases descending to the sea level. Ebenso in the *hilly districts of England, Wales u. Ireland* snowfields u. glaciers. In *Norway* very large glaciers *still filled certain of the fiords* and calved their icebergs in the sea. In *the Alpine Regions of middle Europe*, great snowfields continued to feed extensive *mers de glace*, and the *rivers of the Continent carried down in floodtime immense quantities of fine mud, with which they covered wide areas in the low grounds*.

*Passage v. diesen last glacial times to the Postglacial period* nicht immer nachweisbar; oft gap or hiatus; z. B. manchmal gefunden *clays well charged mit arctic shells* sind *direkt überlagert mit peat containing abundant roots u. trunks* of *large oaks and other trees*. The *bed of an arctic sea* hier *converted into dry land* u. the *climate became temperate*, aber *die deposits* worin die gradual amelioration of climate might be traced, fehlen. – In *Schottld* besser displayed als sonst in British area the *succession of postglacial deposits* u. ihre *relation to accumulations of glacial age*. – [381–383]

The lower portions of the *thicker peatbogs*, *with their included trees*, date probably back to *early postglacial times*, while *their upper parts* must belong to a later and often very recent date. [406]

*Aiton:* *Treatise on the Origin, Qualities, and Cultivation of Moss-Earth.* [421]

Confer über Bildung v. Peat, submarine forests, peat-beds unter u. über forests etc p. 381–426.

*Lacustrine deposits* (zu unterscheiden von den *terraces of alluvial detritus* common in the river valleys of Scotland); i. e. *numerous sheets of loam, clay, sand, marl etc* which mark the *sites of ancient lakes*, (einige davon (der lakes) drained in recent times *artificially*) silted up and grown over; namentlich abundant in *lowlands of Scotland*, wo manche dieser lakes noch existed *1654* , for they are shown as such in *Blaeu’s Atlas* . The deep *drains cut across these alluvial flats*, zeigen häufig folgende succession:

4) *Peat*, sometimes containing *an upper forest-bed*. 3) *Ancient forest of oaks and other trees.* 2) *Loam and marl, with lacustrine shells and remains of red deer* etc. 1) *Boulder clay*.

A *Lake* must in solchem Fall existirt haben für considerable time so as *to allow* of *the accumulation of marl*, der manchmal several feet thick. In vielen cases scheint der *Mergel* (marl) due der *vital action of Charae* and *freshwater molluscs*, wie *Limnaea, Cyclas* etc; diese *separated the carbonate of lime vom Wasser*. Die shells oft obliterated durch spätere *chemical changes*, so dass der Mergel oft aller organischen Struktur entbehrt. Manchmal enthält der Mergel intercalated layers of loam and sand. In andern Fällen wenig oder kein Mergel gefunden, indem die *beds unterliegend den vegetable layers* aus Lehm, Sand u. gravel bestehn. Diese *detrital accumulations washed into the lake by rain and rivulets*, zeigen wie lake nach u. nach silted up. Während dieser Process vorging, *wuchsen Bäume am Rand des lake* u. dropped oft ihre Blätter, Früchte u. Zweige in’s Wasser. Now u. again deer, oxen u. other animals floated in den lake, perhaps by sudden *freshets*, u. so ihre *skeletons entombed in the mud accumulating below*; während der *lake diminished, the woodlands increased*, the trees always *occupying the flat reaches as the water retired*. So *verschwand lake allmälich* u. *its site occupied by forest*. Manchmal fuhr ein *streamlet* fort zu fliessen durch das *aufgetrocknete lake-bed*, während häufig ein *od. mehre deep pools or lakelets remained* wie bis jetzt in *Linton Loch*, in *Roxburghshire*. Nachdem die *great oaks* u. their congeners flourished lange, ward der *low-lying ground* worauf sie wuchsen in *Marsh* verwandelt; die trees decayed u. fell to the ground u. were *gradually enveloped by bog-mosses* in their upward growth. Here u. there *traces of an upper forestbed sometimes occur in the peat*, zeigt darauf hin, dass die *marshy conditions ceased* u. the area wieder fitted für abermaligen Waldwuchs. Der *overlying peat* zeigt return der marshy conditions u. Untergehn des 2ten Walds wie des ersten.

*Remains of postglacial mammalia* in these lacustrine deposits v. time to time obtained in jedem Theil Schottlds, u. a. *Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, wild-boar, red-deer* (oft v. great size), *fallow-deer, roebuck, elk or moose-deer, Irish deer, reindeer, horse, dog, pig, sheep, goat, wild-cat, wolf, fox, beaver*. Manche davon *extirpated* in historic times, andre *greatly restricted* in their range. Noch *Ende des 13 Jhdts* Biber a native of Scotland, seine skins being mentioned unter schott. exports in *an Act of David I for fixing the custom-duties*; kurz nachher extinct, denn nicht mehr erwähnt in ähnlichem Akt v. *June 1424* ; *reindeer remains* sehr selten in Schott. postglacial and recent deposits; die des *elk* (Cervus alces) *häufiger*, aber dennoch somewhat rare; *remains of Irish deer* (C. megaceros) nur einmal found in postglacial deposits. *Letzter Wolf* in Schottland (Highlands) killed *1680*. Der *great Caledonian bull* still surviving in the degenerate cattle of Hamilton Park etc wahrscheinlich direct descendant of the large *Bos Primigenius* u. *B. longifrons*, the long-fronted ox survives in Scottish breeds.

*Nowhere in Scotland any relics of Palaeolithic man or any trace of the characteristic pleistocene mammalia*. – The *later Stone age* dauerte in Schottland lang hinein in die Bronze-Periode des Continents.

Zur Zeit der *40–50 feet beach* (über Sea-level) v. *Mittelschottland* lebte Neolithic man an den damaligen Gestaden des *Forth* u. hinterliess *kitchen-middens, stone-implements, bone-harpoons* u. *canoes* to testify his former presence. Nachdem das Meer retirirt to the *25–30 feet level* bereits *knowledge of metals* introduced, as shown durch die *various objects of bronze and iron* met with *embedded* in the estuarine u. marine deposits of that stage. Aber, in certain districts, upon *the upper surface of this later marine terrace* u. in *old sea-caves pertaining to the same level kitchen-middens* u. other *finds* zeigen *no trace of metal*. Also nachdem schon in CentralSchottland knowledge of metals introduced, people living in *northern* and *other outlying parts of the country* ohne solche. Wann retreated the sea from the 25–30 feet level? Change scheint to have taken place after occupation of the land by a *Celtic-speaking* people. Dies daher »vermutet«, weil in the *Carse of Gowrie* (u. elsewhere) found *prominent mounds*, which must have been *islets* during the formation of the *25–30 feet beach*, designated as *Inches* from the *Gaelic „Inis“* = *island*. [425–429]

#### 2) England.

*Submerged forests u. peats occur at many places on the coasts of England*; most frequently on *low shelving shores*, where the land falls away with a gentle declivity to the sea; sind manchmal seen *in section in the low cliffs or banks of alluvial or detrital matter* which are washed by the water *at high-tide*; an andern Plätzen *exposed upon the beach at low-tide*, and pass outwards for an unknown distance. *Borings at various seaport towns* prove their occurrence ⦗of similar land-surfaces⦘ in *Tiefen 40 Fuss unter present Meerniveau*. *Submerged peat* has been dredged off the coasts *in 60 feet of water* u. *it has been detected covering the sea-bottom in the very middle of the English channel*.

*The phenomena of submerged forests* not confined to one part of England, scheinen alle Meerregions zu charakterisiren wo die requisite conditions of *a low shelving shore obtain*. – *All these sunk forests represent former land-surfaces*; they are even *more continuous* than they appear to be; many old land-surfaces lie concealed below recent beach and estuarine accumulations upon most of the low shelving shores of England.

In der Mehrzahl der Fälle die *trees found rooted in the old soil*; consist of common species still indigenous to Britain, wie *oak, pine, hazel, birch, alder, ash, yew* etc. Die *vegetable layer varies von weniger als 1 foot to 12 or selbst 20 in Dicke* u. scheint in einigen Fällen ganz composed *of the débris of trees*. Gewöhnlicher aber occur the *remains of trees* at the *base of the bed* u. *covered over mit peat*, formed of *sphagnum, sedges, rushes*, or other marsh-loving plants; the *submerged forests* repose upon *strata of very different ages*. In einigen districts z. B. das *unmittelbar-unterliegende stratum* some member of the *glacial series*, in andern Plätzen the trees rooted in *Palaeolithic or ossiferous gravels*, or in *strata belonging to the older Tertiary formations*. Aber *kein einziges Beispiel von any passage-beds* to bridge over the *hiatus zwischen Glacial Period and the beginning of the Post-Glacial*; überall *unconformity zwischen den peat-beds* u. *the latest of the glacial deposits* worauf sie may repose. Das Ice Age had passed away u. die *later glacial deposits* were *greatly eroded long bevor die trees der submarine forests* had *begun to grow*. [430–432]

Als ein Beispiel: the *Area occupied* by *the Postglacial u. Recent Deposits* along the *maritime shores of Cheshire u. Lancashire* (vom *Dee* bis *Morecambe Bay*) bildet a *low-lying plain* stretching inland for several miles from the shore. Its *inner margin* well defined by the *25-feet contour line*, aber *large part of its surface below the surface of the sea*, which is kept out by a long range of sand hills, u. here u. there *by artificial embankments*. Die deposits am dicksten in unmittelbarer Nachbarschaft bei Seeküste u. what appear to be old buried valleys; nach *inland* zu werden sie generally dünner; manchmal sind sie nicht über 6, 10 or 12 feet dick, in other places they swell out to 80 feet; die *various beds of the series* seldom maintain a definite thickness for any distance, swell out u. thin irregularly; viel dort *borings* stattgefunden. Nach *de Rance* folgendes die *Average* *(general) succession der beds*:

6) *Sand dunes*; 5) *Upper clay and silt, partly marine* (Scrobicularia piperata), *partly freshwater* (Cyclas cornea) 4) *Upper peat and forest-bed*. 3) *Lower clay and silt*, wie sub 5) *partly marine, partly freshwater*. 2) *Sand*, with *comminuted fragments of Cardium edule u. Turritella communis*. 1) *Lower peat and forest-bed*.

⦗*Es entsprechen sich hier* 1) u. 4), 2) u. 6), 3) u. 5)⦘ Der *bottom*, worauf diese Deposits rest, *almost invariably Boulder-Clay* (also *Glacial Deposit*), manchmal aber auch direct auf dem *Bunten Sandstein der Triassic formation* . Diese formation ist die *unterste der Secondary or Mesozoic* u. in ihr selbst *oberste: Keuper*; *mittlere: Muschelkalk*; *tiefste* (unterste), also älteste: *Bunter Sandstein* . [432–434]

Es existirt hier, wie in Schottland, *strongly-marked unconformity* zwischen postglacial beds u. dem sie unterliegenden *boulder-clay*; lange bevor die trees of the *Lower Peat* (1) began to grow, *ice sheet melted away* u. *its bottom-moraine deeply incised by streams and rivers*; no trace of *late glacial shell-beds met with underneath the peat*; Sprang at once von arctic condition to the remains of an abundant forest vegetation. *Sehr lange Zeit must have elapsed zwischen final melting des last great ice sheet* u. dem *advent of the Germanic flora*. – The *lower peat* (1) varies von 2 inches zu 10 Fuss dick; seine *trees* in vielen cases *rooted in the underlying boulder-clay*, so dass kein Zweifel dass sie *grew in situ*; gehören zu den usual species, *oak, pine, hazel* etc. Nach *de Rance* weder *animal remains* noch *trace of man or his work* entdeckt in this oldest member der postglacial series.

No. 2) *Sand* chiefly in *Form of sandhills* along the *eastern or inner margin of the great plains*, aber continued *underneath the overlying deposits to the West*. Nach De Rance *formed by the action* of *the sea and wind* zu einer Zeit als das *Land* at relativ niedrigerer *elevation* als jetzt, u. die *coast* corresponded closely mit was *jetzt die 25-feet contour-line*. Der Sand then spread out in *shallow water and upon the beach*, u. *blown inland* so as to form a series of dunes entsprechend den *sandhills* (2) which now fringe the modern coast. Hence das Land, which, *during the growth of 1) lower buried forest*, must have extended viel weiter in das Meer als jetzt, must have become gradually *submerged zu Tiefe below its present level* of *some 25 feet*. Bevor diese *submergence fully accomplished* waren die *trees unterlegen dem Einfluss wachsender Feuchtigkeit – marshes gradually extended their bounds* u. *wide stretches of peat* ere long occupied the site of the ancient forest. Nach u. nach *invaded the sea* selbst die broad flats, here sweeping away the peat and prostrate timber u. there covering it up *with sand and silt and clay* (3). Zur selben Zeit die *submerged portions der rivervalleys filled up and levelled with the floor of the sea*. Nach u. nach die *shallowing sea* here and there *excluded von den mud-flats* u. *wide lakes of fresh water* formed. In diesen lakes *gray silts accumulated u. Cyclas cornea abounded*. Im Moos wie die mud-flats abandoned vom Meer, *trees again* reappeared, vegetation überhaupt more abundant, at last a dense forest-growth prevailing; *Scottish firs u. oaks* etc. Dieser Wald wieder verwandelt in Morast (into *marshes*), *Peat* bedeckt die site of the old woodlands (3). Hier u. da im *peat shrubby growths of holly, hazel, spurge*, flourishing then in the drier places, wie jetzt in dem District willow u. spurge growing. Zur Zeit der *Forests* (4) the *sea must have been at a greater* distance, alias the *land must have extended westward* beträchtlich weiter hinein *into the Irish sea* als jetzt. Mit decay u. overthrow der trees u. dem growth of peat muss stattgefunden haben *considerable loss of land*. Das *Meer* gained upon the coast u. here and there *an upper marine clay* came to be laid down *upon the peat*. [434–436]

Nach *de Rance* the *oldest relics of man* – *implements of Neolithic age* – in N. 3), *Lower clay and silt*; im selben bed *remains of urus* (Bos primigenius), *Cervus megaceros* (the great Irish deer) and cetaceans. Von N. 4), *Upper peat and forest-bed* have come *Celtic* u. *Roman relics*, die ersteren *in lower portion*, die 2ten in *higher portion* des bed. [436]

Folgt hieraus: 1) *Lower forestbed* (1) zeigt hin auf *weitere Ausdehnung des Landes* u. *Clima* günstig für abundant forest vegetation.

2) Das *Peat*, worunter diese trees buried (1) zeigt an feuchtere conditions, ruinirend die Wälder, *fostering abundant marsh-plant vegetation*

3) Die *wide peat-covered plains sanken* eventually *unter’s Meer* zu Tiefe unter ihrem gegenwärtigen *25 feet level*. Neolithic man at that time *occupant of the land*.

4) *Sea retreated* again slowly u. *wide freshwater lakes made their appearance*.

5) *entsprechend* (1)

6) The *upper Peat* (4) entsprechend (2)

7) The *beds über dem peat indicate a recent encroachment of the sea*, das wahrscheinlich begann bevor destruction der forests vollendet war. [436, 437]

*In Cornwallis: postglacial beds* mit *submerged forest, peat* etc resting on *tin-ground (formation of the coarse gravels and stones of the stream-tin deposits)* ; z. B. so famous *submerged forest of Mount’s Bay*; the *tin-gravels* to be considered as *representative of the closing part of the Glacial Period*. [437–442]

*Sunk forests and buried* *trees* *of the Fenland*; die Region des letzteren *extends inland to west and south* von den *borders des Wash*, so dass it *embraces area of more than 1000 □miles, widest tract of level ground in Britain*. *Fenland* described by many writers; aber recent *exhaustive exploration* durch *S. B. J. Skertchly* , *of the Geological Survey* , dem Geikie folgt, wenn auch nicht überall in Deutung der facts.

*The oldest of the true Fenbeds* – i. e. the lowest – are certain *unfossiliferous gravels*, found almost everywhere paving the *bottom of the ancient silted-up basin* u. extending more or less continuously along the *margin of the Fenland*, wo, nach Skertchly, they evidently indicate *a former line of beach*. … Diese gravels stretch *along the margin of the fenland in a continuous band* von *Sleaford bis Peterborough*, an welchen beiden points they merge into *„valley gravels“*, i. e. gravels of fluviatile origin. *Sie pass clearly unter* the *silt and peat*, u. man findet sie immer wieder in *cuttings, borings u. other sections* throughout the Fenland; hence „they form a more or less complete flooring to the basin, just as at the present time the bottom of the Wash is similarly covered.“ *(Skertchly* *)* Hence, schliesst Geikie , both *by their geological position and their organic contents* (mammalian remains) the *„beach-“* and *„floor-gravels“* of the Fenland *cannot belong to* the *glacial series*, sondern sind of *post-glacial age*. Das *basin* selbst ist excavated zum Theil in *Oolitic strata*, zum Theil in *boulder-clay*. ⦗Oolitic gehört zur *Jurassic*, i. e. *Mitte der Secondary Period*⦘ Der *boulder-clay* ist die *boue glaciaire* der great ice-sheet which probably flowed south as far as the Thames; belongs to *climax der glacial period*, daher unendlich älter als irgend ein Theil der fenbeds, wie alt diese immer sein mögen. Hier u. da the *level surface* des *Fenland* broken by the presence of *slight hills* u. *rising grounds, forming islands* so to say in its wide expanse; diese islands composed of *ancient river- and estuarine gravels* resting upon boulderclay; they indicate the *former existence of a land higher than the present, when the coast-line was not so far east*. The gravels have yielded *Palaeolithic* implements and remains of the mammalia characteristic of the Pleistocene times. The *old land* occupied by *Palaeolithic man* and his congeners had been worn *down by river-action*, and *cut back for miles by the sea* before the oldest of the Fenbed began to accumulate. Break between the Palaeolithic deposits and the overlying more recent accumulations, the latter resting upon a highly denuded surface of the former; Palaeolithic u. Neolithic series being not conformable. – The *beach- and floorgravels* probably *indicate an early postglacial submergence*, doch – in *absence of marine remains* – fehlen die Beweise davon.

*Beds über den beach- u. floor-gravels* bestehn aus marine *silt* u. *clay, peat u. shellmarl*, diese aber interosculate so, dass offenbar *peat u. shellmarl* formed at one place, während gleichzeitig *silt* accumulating elsewhere, u. dies *alternately*. The gravelpaved basin worin diese accumulations rest *gradually conquered from the sea chiefly by the deposition of silt*, brought in, says *Skertchly* , durch *die sea selbst* at the slack of high-water ⦗zwischen Ebbe u. Fluth; Todtwasser⦘ upon the coast.; dieser process going on mit wenig Unterbrechung since the Fen peat u. silt began to form. – Dass *Land früher more extensive* proved durch die *buried forests*. Nach Skertchly *forests* occur mindestens at 4 horizons u. an einem Platz *nicht minder als 5 buried forests einer über dem andern mit separating beds of peat*. Der *lowest forest* rests upon the *floorgravels*, zeigt dass, after the deposition of the gravels, *sea retreated and a well-drained landsurface* existed in its place. “The next horizon includes the trees which occur at about 10 feet from the surface; the third those about 5 feet from the surface; the fourth [those] nearer the surface than the 3d.“ *(Skertchly* *)* In einigen sections nur 3, 2 (untereinander begrabner) Wälder, manchmal selbst nur ein einziger. *The most constant of all the forests* appears the *lowest*, der upon the basement gravel-beds. Die *trees* u. *shrubs Eiche* (Quercus robur), pine *(Pinus sylvestris?* *), elm, yew, birch, hazel, alder, willow* (several species), alle still natives des Fenland except Pinus sylvestris.

Jedes forest-bed *bedeckt durch greater od. less thickness of peat*, aber an vielen Plätzen *dicke u. extensive Peatbeds ohne traces of trees*; ausserdem *similar seams of peat interstratified again and again with marine silt u. clay*.

*Shell-marl* occupies auch considerable areas in Fenland, points to *former existence of shallow lakes or meres*; abounds with shells of such genera as *Pisidium, Planorbis, Limnaea, Cyclas, Succinea etc*

*Human relics* met at various depths in the Fenbeds; ausser *stone-implements of Neolithic forms „dug out“ canoes*. (l davon of oak, tree out of which it was fashioned estimated to have contained 650 cubic feet of timber) Remains of the usual *postglacial fauna* common enough in some places, darunter *Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, fox, wolf, beaver, roebuck, red-deer, great Irish-deer, reindeer, otter, marten, wild boar, brown bear*. Unter den *marine* *deposits – common seal, Greenland Whale, walrus etc*; aber in keinem der true Fenbeds any trace found of the extinct forms characteristic of *Palaeolithic times*. –Das *peat*, das über dem ältesten buried forest, besteht hauptsächlich of *the moss*: *Hypnum fluitans*. The succeeding *deposits of marine silt* mit *Scrobicularia piperata* zeigen a *limited submergence of the land*. Dann retreats sea wieder to a *lower level than at present*, newer forestgrowth etc; dann wieder overwhelmed by growth of peat. Neue *submergence of land* accompanied u. followed this change. Endlich the *marine silt, peat*, and *sporadic layers of trees*, which occur in the Fenland *at higher levels than the second forest-bed*, point to *the gradual silting-up of the Wash* u. die *alternate prevalence of humid and dry conditions on the reclaimed areas*. [445–450]

Die Vergleichung der *Postglacial u. Recent deposits of the English North-west coasts, Cornish Coast u. Broad Fenland* zeigen bei manchen *lokalen* Verschiedenheiten folgende allgemeine Züge, *due to the prevalence of similar conditions over a wide area*:

1) *bedeutend breitere Landoberfläche als die jetzige*, mit Clima günstig für abundant growth of forest-trees. 2) *Period of greater humidity*; Verfall der Wälder, gradually overgrown by marsh-plants. Dies accompanied u. succeeded *by a limited submergence of the land*, während deren *marine deposits* gathered *over the surface of the vegetable accumulations*. 3) *Subsequent emergence of land and its elevation to a higher level than the present*, followed or accompanied durch a return of genial conditions, when *great forests spread over jetzt low maritime regions*. 4) *Neuer change* *to more humid conditions*; decay of forests, *luxuriating marsh-plants* overgrowing them; zugleich *advance von sea upon land*, obgleich nicht to such an extent wie during the *previous period of submergence*. 5) Seitdem *relative level of land u. sea* wenig changed; an einigen Orten *the waves u. tides have caused the coastline to recede*, an andern a *gradual silting-up of the sea*. The oldest of the buried forests have yielded relics of Neolithic age u. similar remains occur even at higher levels. Nur in den *upper buried forests and peat remains of Celtic u. Roman times*.

*Raised beaches of Postglacial and recent age* hier u. da at low levels upon the English coast, wie die *marine deposits* overlying the lower buried forests, and the *inner margins* of which manchmal *25 feet of even 30* feet über present sealevel, aber nie höher; the old *sea-margins* occurring at higher levels *belong to the Pleistocene series*.

In den *inland districts peat-bogs* u. *Postglacial u. Recent alluvia* occupy relatively *selbe geologische Position wie in Schottland*. In den *hügligen regions of Wales* überliegen sie die *latest deposits pertaining to the glacial period*; in *East Anglia* u. der *southeastern region* generally ruhen sie ebenfalls auf *accumulations of Pleistocene age*. Im *Thal der Themse* u. andrer Flüsse *tracts of low-level alluvial land bordering the rivers*, all of which postglacial or recent, as proved durch die remains der true postglacial fauna, mit relics of Neolithic u. later ages. Aber was *chiefly noteworthy mit Bezug auf diese alluvia*: in *Lincolnshire* u. *Nachbardistricten überlagern* sie überall *unconformably* die *älteren accumulations of gravel, sand u. loam*, in denen occur die *relics of Palaeolithic man* u. *remains of Pleistocene fauna*. In counties of *Norfolk* u. *Cambridge* f.i. *deposits of Palaeolithic age* occur häufig on *hill-slopes u. even sometimes cross watersheds*, aber all the *modern alluvia confined entirely to the bottoms of the valleys*. In solchen Thälern wie der Themse, die *modern alluvia* bilden ebenso the *low-lying plains* through which the rivers flow, and invariably *overlie the true Pleistocene deposits*.

Wie in Schottland, so in England evident, dass *in early postglacial times the rivers flowed in larger volume than at present*. Die *lacustrine alluvia u. peat-bogs* resemble in all essential features denen Schottlands. Die *peat-bogs* auch der *inland districts* contain hin u. wieder successive tiers of forest-trees. Auf dem *bottom der bogs oak od. pine*, od. beide, the *pine* occupying *the higher levels and more gravelly soil*; *höher herauf im peat, 2tes Stratum of timber*, chiefly *birch* u. *hazel* u. manchmal mainly *oak*; a 3d buried forest is occasionally found a little higher up, worin common tree – *alder* od. *willow*.

Die *postglacial mammals of England*, ausser den noch indigenous: *Brown bear* (kommt noch in Römerzeit vor u. wahrscheinlich still some time later) *great Irish deer, elk, reindeer* (gehören alle to *an early postglacial age*, scheinen *lang vor römischer Invasion* extinct), *urus u. long-fronted ox* (wahrscheinlich ceased to be feral in early historic times), *aur-ochs or bison, otter, beaver* (*beaver* scarce in *Wales vor Ende des 9 Jhdts*, denn in den *laws of Hywel Dda* , wo *regulated* die *prices of furs, marten’s skin* soll kosten 24 d., otter’s 12 d., beaver’s 120 d.; aber existirte noch *Ende des 12 Jhd.* u. mentioned von Giraldus Cambrensis as a native of Wales), *wolf* (ausgerottet im Norden v. England unter Henry VIII) u. wild-cat. *Mammoth*, wovon u. a. occur 2 perfect heads in the *peat at Holyhead*, in *Anglesea*, u. *peat-stained molar* im submerged forest of Torbay. Discoveries of Mammoth remains at all events made nur in deposits *at* or *below* the *present sea-level*. – Auch *remains of reindeer* sehr selten, auch auf continent – in *postglacial deposits*. [451–458]

#### 3) Irland.

Seine submarine forests u. peat, u. die Postglacial u. recent raised-beaches selber Natur wie in Schottld u. England.

*Submarine forests u. peat* am häufigsten auf *Ost- u. Südküsten*, entlang den shores of sandy bays, wo sie *exposed at low water*. Bezeugen generally *bedeutenden loss of land* in some recent geological period, u. in certain places *successive oscillations of the sealevel*. In the *raised-beaches* – gravel, sand, *shellbeds*; in letzteren *flint implements* *of Neolithic age* found, namentlich at *Kilroot*, on the coast of *Belfast Lough*. On the *coasts of Meath u. Dublin remains of kitchen-middens mit traces of fireplaces* in positions showing dass damals land at lower level. The *upper beach* auch well developed in some places, yielded also *flint implements* etc.

*The great peatbogs des interior* yielded fast überall *relics of the forests of postglacial times*; unterer forest meist oak u. yew; *höher in den bogs*, 4 or 12 feet über den oak-trees, 2ter layer of stumps and trunks, meist of *pine*; auch dieser forest, wie erster, *buried under peat*. Nach dem irischen Geologen *Kinahan* :

1) *Period of great forests* of oak and yew, the oak growing *up the hills bis 400 feet* über Meer; at higher levels *deal* the prevailing timber, up to greater heights als jetzt, manchmal large trunks in *bogs 1000 od. 1200 feet über Meer*.

2) Wälder angegriffen unter moss, daher: 3) *Peatbildung* , die low grounds disforested over wide areas, wherever the peat could easily accumulate; on *low hills*, in the bogs, the *oak still continued* to grow. 4) *Growth of peat ceases*; on peaty surface *neuer forest*, chiefly of *deals* gleichzeitig mit *oaks* that covered the hills or „islands“ in the bogs. Diese hills, obgleich jezt destitute of trees, heissen noch *derries (anglice: oakwoods)*, seit Zeit wo sie oak-groves surrounded by forests of deal. In einigen *wilds of Mayo oak* still growing on the *drift-islands* in the bog, stets associated mit *yew, hazel, birch, ash, holly*; 5) *Neuer forest decay* , deal succumb wie oak zuvor etc.

Häufig *human relics* entdeckt in den Irish peatbogs.; *two-story log-house* unter 14 feet of peat in *Drumkelin Bog, Inver, County Donegal*; in Nähe des Hauses a *piece* of *a leather sandal, a flint arrow-head, a wooden sword*. Auch discovered in verschiednen Tiefen in den bogs *human bodies, clad in woollen u. hair garments of antique fashion; Old roadways formed of timber*. In one case *(* *Duncan’s* *Flow-bog, Ballyalbanagh, County Antrim)* ancient roadway, of oak, in depth v. 15–20 feet, rested upon 4 feet of black turf, at the base of which stumps and logs of oak appeared. On the same level as the road, *stools* u. *logs of deal* appear; *da holes in the wooden pavement mended with deal slabs placed across them*, to be inferred that the path continued in use up to the time when the *deal forest* had begun to flourish upon the dried peat-bog. The *deal forest destruction* seems due to flooding, as the *peat* is *„flow bog“ (Ulster)*, i. e. *peat* full of *sedge, and flaggers* which only grow or accumulate *in marshes* or *flooded bogs*. Another *ancient roadway*, of *oak-timber*, in a bog near *Castle Connell, County Limerick*. Near the path found a *keg*, full of a substance like whey, standing beside an oak-stump. *Ueber diesem level 5 feet of peat*, wonach folgt a *buried forest of deals*, covered in its turn by more than 12 feet of bog.

Dann die *„crannoges“* or *lake-dwellings of Ireland*, wovon einige probably of Neolithic period, andre down in more recent period; ebenso mit den *kitchen-middens* at various places upon the coast. *Neolithic u. Bronze Ages* represented by great number of implements, arms, ornaments – generally over the whole island, manchmal in *peat*, manchmal in *alluvial deposits*, manchmal lying loose at *the surface*. *Animals* of *Postglacial and more recent times: Great Irish deer* (most characteristic wegen its great abundance, its remains very common *in the marl and clay under the bogs), Bos longifrons* (long-faced ox), red-deer, reindeer, goat, sheep, wolf, [fox,] dog, *ursus spelaeus od. ursus ferox etc*. [458–463]

#### 4) Continent.

a) *deposits of Sweden and Norway. (Scandinavia)* hier die postglacial u. recent deposits of the Continent best developed, im *Innern des Continents* natürlich nicht wie dort u. in *U.K. occurrence of well-marked marine deposits der Post-Glacial Period*, supplying a line of evidence.

In den *low grounds* of *Southern Scandinavia* die *glacial clays with their arctic fauna* direct *overlaid with marine deposits of postglacial age*, covering oft wide extent of country; letztre bestehn mainly aus *clay u. beds of shells, sand, and gravel*; beweisen dass in *postglacial times* Southern parts of Norway u. Sweden submerged to mindestens 350 feet. In *Norway u. Sweden* occur die *höchstliegenden shell-banks 150 feet* über Meer; zuzurechnen *90 feet od. so of water for the shell-fish* to live in, da sie nicht hätten existiren können at the *actual high-tide mark*; dies giebt für actual submergence *240 feet*. *Postglacial shelly clays* erreichen grössere Höhe (Lage über See) als any of the shell-banks; nach *Kjerulf* *clays mit shells* in Norwegen erreichen Höhe v. *250–380 feet über Meer*, nimmt dazu an 20 or 30 fathoms – 1 fathom = 6 feet – for *the depth of water, worin diese clays accumulated*, giebt submergence of 370–560 feet. Prof. *Erdmann* (schwed. Geolog) sagt dass die *Postglacial clays of Sweden* reach v. *200–300 u. mehr feet Höhe über See* . Die alten *shore-lines of the postglacial sea* marked out *by littoral accumulations – heaps of sand and gravel and shells*, beginning at 150 feet u. occurring at many *different levels* down to *50 feet above the sea*.

»No direct passage can be traced *from the true glacial shell-beds into those of postglacial age*.« (p. 465); the latter *unconformably upon the former*; die *glacial [clays] stocked mit remains of a strongly-marked arctic fauna*, die *overlying postglacial beds have a fauna* distinctly temperate, approaching in character to that which now occupies the adjacent sea.

Die *postglacial beds* – über den glacial – folgende 3 more or less well-marked divisions:

1) *lowest:* *Dull brown and dark blue clay, with shells* and *associated banks of sand, gravels, and shells*.

2) *Light gray and pale brown clay*, with no organic remains. *(mittlere Division)*

3) *Oberste Division:* *Sands unfossiliferous*, womit nicht unhäufig associirt *erratics*.

ad 1) *Lowest Division* : gut entwickelt entlang den *niedrig gelegnen* *marine* *districts*, wo es den ground more or less als continuous sheet zu bedecken scheint; folgt allen *sinuosities der Seeküste* u. penetrates so für kürzere oder weitere Distanz ins Innere des Landes; auch commonly *cloaking the bottoms of valleys that open directly upon the sea* u. verfolgbar *entlang the margins* of lakes die in *late glacial u. postglacial times Arme u. gulfs der Nordsee u. des Baltic* bildeten. An einigen Plätzen dieser clay *höchst fossiliferous* in *striking contrast to the glacial clays*. Meisten der *postglacial species* noch in den *neighbouring seas*, but *many of the shells* *schmaler* als die *von selben* Formen in den *glacial deposits*; einige wenige species, sehr gewöhnlich in den letzteren, erscheinen wieder in verminderter Anzahl in den *postglacial*; dagegen in den *true glacial beds* fehlen ganz die *well-known species of the southern coast of Norway*, während sie *abundant in postglacial deposits*. Einige *Mollusken*, sehr zahlreich *in postglacial times auf* *den Südküsten von Norwegen*, jetzt retired zur *Westküste*; andre zu *letzterer* und der *Nordküste*

*Vergleich* über die verschiednen species in den *glacial beds* u. ihrer schwachen Repräsentation in den *postglacial*, 1) in *Glacial shell-banks* u. *Postglacial shell-banks*, 2) in *glacial marly clay* u. *in Postglacial shelly clay etc* (p. 466, 67 note)

*Many of the shells*, most abundant in the *postglacial deposits of Sweden and Norway*, wo sie *commingled sind mit arctic u. boreal species*, sind of *rather a southern type*. Nach *Michael Sars* die Mollusken der Norweg’schen postglacial beds umfassen *175 species*, wovon 75 arctic, 59 boreal, 41 Lusitanian-Mediterranean. Ebenso zeigt *Sars* dass perfectly identical species *lebend gefunden* in *Nordsee* u. im *Mittelmeer*, aber *nicht upon the intervening coasts des Atlantic*.

*Sehr grosser Contrast* der *postglacial clays* in *East of Sweden* im Vergleich zu denen von *Westschweden* u. *Südnorwegen*, durch ihre *poverty in organic remains*, haben nur 5 species geliefert, wovon alle – except Littorina litorea – *noch occupy* the Brackish waters *of the Baltic*. In den same deposits gefunden the *common bullhead* (Cottus scorpius), gehörig zur *Uferfauna* des Baltic, bei *Upsala* u. bis in’s Innere hineien so far as *Skattmansö*; beweist dass der *„black clay“ (* *Svartlera* *)* jener Region of *littoral* u. *estuarine formation*.

Hin u. wieder der *postglacial clay* so abundantly stocked mit shells, dass diese letztren den grösseren Theil des deposits bilden. *Derartige shellbanks* häufig in Südschweden *ruhend auf den slopes of certain great ridges of gravel*, called *åsar, die of true glacial age*; so f.i. a *shellbank* on the *ås or gravel-ridge of Enköping*, ist *nur 100 feet über sealevel*, looks like *a littoral accumulation* da bestehend of *rapid alternations* von *gravel, sand, clay* u. *triturated débris* of common mussel u. Tellina balthica; in *den clay-layers plentiful remains of land-plants*, wovon *Equisetum*, noch reichlich an den Ufern des Baltic, offenbar *in situ* – the place of its growth –, nämlich des *margin of the sea*, wo its stalks become embedded year by year in the gradually accumulating sediment; die andern plant-remains offenbar washed down from the old land by running-water. – In den *Western districts von Südschweden* die *postglacial shellbanks* oft ähnlich gruppirt along the flanks of prominent åsar, *erreichen nie grössere elevation* als 100–150 feet über Meer; auch sie *true littoral accumulations*; in *Süd Norwegen* Shellbanks at various levels von 50–150 or 200 feet above the sea.

*Die postglacial beds of Finland u. Northern Russia*, beschrieben durch *Krapotkin* u. *Schmidt* , bestehn theils aus *freshwater-* *(dies die älteren)*, theils aus *marine deposits*. Nach *Rückzug der grossen glaciers od. des mer de glace*, wurde Oberfläche des Bodens zurückgelassen bedeckt mit *extensive sheets of boulder-clay* u. *abundant spreads u. heaps von erratics, gravel u. sand*. At *close of the Glacial Period sollen gulfs of Finland u. Bothnia* grosse *freshwater lakes* gewesen sein. Die ganze Region enthält jetzt noch viele lakes. In vielen Fällen die *natural dams* which held in these sheets of fresh water bestehend *aus åsar* (great *gravel-ridges*) *rendered watertight* durch den *mantle of loam u. silty clay* which often cloaks their slopes. Im Gegensatz zu *Skandinavien*, wo *marine late glacial u. postglacial deposits* verfolgt zu grossen Höhen, *nicht a single sea-shell* od. *any other evidence of glacial* or *postglacial submergence* entdeckt in *Finland*. – *Lake Onega* ist *280 feet über sealevel*, keine Spur von glacial or postglacial deposits in its neighbourhood; die *einzige evidence of postglacial* *submergence* noted by Russian observers, *along the margins of* the *Gulfs of Bothnia u. Finland* up to 50 feet above the sea, wo *deposits* charged mit remains of the well-known Baltic Fauna. Scheint *dass das movement of depression*, which in postglacial times *carried down das südliche area v. Norwegen u. Schweden* about *500 feet unter its present level*, northwards so abgeschwächt, dass in den *northern gulfs of the Baltic* das *Meer nur a limited area of low ground in the maritime districts besetzte*.

ad 2) *Mittlere Division*. *Lightgray u. pale brown clay, ohne organic remains (nach Kjerulf* *)*. Von den *Maritime districts bis ins Inland* dies clay deposit continuous mit lacustrine beds – *accumulations of fresh-water origin*; it is *dicker u. reiner* in den lower levels of the land als in den *inland districts*, wo es oft *layers u. beds von feinem Sand enthält*; es ist often *bedeckt*,

ad 3) *Oberste division* by *deposits of sandy clay* u. *sand*, worin oft, bes. gegen top der series, *boulders u. erratics*. In *Schweden* ebenso the *postglacial shelly clays overlaid by a deposit* of *unfossiliferous sand (mosand)*, covering as an almost continuous sheet *wide areas in the low grounds*. – Die erratics often found perched upon the *tops of the shellbanks* or *sprinkled over the surface of the shelly clay*.

*Nach submergence* von Südskandinavien *stieg Temperatur des Meers* beträchtlich über die der cold waters *worin die arctic fauna der preceding Glacial Period* had flourished, aber die fortdauernde Anwesenheit, *bes. in den höchsten postglacial deposits*, of *certain northern forms*, seitdem verschwunden v. Süden Norwegens u. Schwedens, zeigt dass *Nordsee noch etwas kälter als jetzt*. Mit weiterer *Hebung des Lands*, nahm *Temperatur des Meers zu*, die Fauna verlor ganz ihren arctic character, the Postglacial Period merged into the present.

*Submarine peat* an vielen Stellen *entlang the low-lying u. shelving shores of Scania* etc.; indicates *an old land-surface* u. da *passing out to sea – a recent submergence. Oft gravelbanks* – manchmal *10–15 feet* über jetzigen *sealevel –, underlaid* by *deposits of postglacial silt u. clay*, containing marine shells still living in den benachbarten Wässern etc. (cf. 473–76) Eine der interessantesten *raised-beaches* die grosse bank called *Järavallen* (od. Gäravallen) stretching as a more or less continuous ridge along *the coast of the Baltic von Ystad to the part zwischen Trelleborg u. Falsterbo*. Dadrunter *(Prof. Nilsson* *)* (unter der Sandbank) *peatbogs which lie below the surface of the sea*. Einer *dieser bogs* dick *10 feet*, wovon *2 feet 5 inches über* Seespiegel u. *7 feet 7 inches below* it. „the *turf* under *this stone wall so compressed* that when dry it is *almost as hard as brown coal*; *the trees* are also like the layers of coal pressed together, u. when a fir-chip is broken it is *found to be black and shining in the cross section*, result of great pressure and of age. The turf has here, as in the submarine peatbogs which lie outside Falsterbo, *been formed in fresh water*, of which the *bottom when the turf was formed lay above* the surface of the sea; darin found the same species of shrubs wie in den other Scanian peatbogs, situated farther in the interior of the country. On the bottom of this peatbog – the fine blue clay itself – oft found, während des turf cutting, *arrows, knives etc of flint*, beweisend that Menschen lebten in diesen districts at time *when the bog* was an *open water* u. peat began to grow in it.“ *(Nilsson)* Hauptpunkt bei den *Scanian beaches* ist die *appearance of peat and freshwater beds underneath banks and ridges of gravel and sand, welche letztere unquestionably beach-accumulations*, as proved durch more or less abundant »*presence of rolled shells and shellfragments* belonging to familiar marine forms.

b) *Peat under similar circumstances* auf den opposite *shores of Denmark, Jutland u. islands of Fünen, Zealand, Möen u. Bornholm, Holstein, Hannover*. *Auf preuss. shores* des *Baltic peat* über u. unter sealevel, wie at *Gute Herberge bei Danzig*. Ditto:

*Holland*. (p. 477–79) *Belgian coast u. French shores of the Channel* (479, 80) *Famous Peat Deposits of the Somme Valley*; (480–81) *ditto submarine peats u. trees on many points on coasts of Normandy, Brittany* (481–82)

*Dargschichten* heissen: *deeply buried peatbeds* ⦗running von Schleswig bis mouth der Schelde⦘ in *Ostfriesland, 10 od. 12, manchmal 40 feet and more unter present sealevel*, frequently *interbedded mit marine clays*. ⦗*darg* dort = *peat. „geest“ = sand*.⦘ *Z. B. bei Emden*, daselbst zeigen *borings*:

| 1) Alluvium (marine) | 4) Alluvium (marine) | 7) Alluvium (marine) | 9) Alluvium (marine) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2) Darg (peat.) | 5) Darg (peat) | 8) Darg (peat) | 10) Darg (peat) |
| 3) Soilbed. | 6) Soilbed. |  |  |

*Geest* heisst in Westphalen u. Holland der *sand* u. *gravel* forming the *„high and dry ground“, proved to extend underneath the peat, blown sand, and recent marine clays of those countries*, as at Rotterdam, Antwerpen etc.

*Hollands Lage* unter sealevel durch einige writers zugeschrieben der *Depression resulting von der gradual compression der bogs u. soils* dieses Lands durch *Einführung des general system of canal-drainage*. However this may be, *evidence, supplied by borings* u. durch *superficial strata exposed to view in some of the canals*, beweist dass *Holland* unterging in *postglacial times* – *degree of submergence* nicht attributable *to a mere lowering of the surface* in Folge der consolidation der bogs u. ihrer associated deposits. [477, 478]

*Details of postglacial history in Central u. Northern Europe* after *close of glacial period* hauptsächlich derived von den *peatbogs*. There are *no* *recent marine deposits* wie die der *Scandinavian u. British areas* throwing durch ihre *organic remains* Licht auf *postglacial climate der inland districts des Continents* . Alle *relics* hier in *freshwater tufas, river- u. lake-alluvia* u. *peatbogs*, welche by far the most important. Diese peatbogs erreichen great development in *Holland, Denmark, Schleswig Holstein u. Norddeutscld* wo, in *absence of coal*, sie – namentlich *vor* *Einführung der Eisenbahnen – of greatest value* als Heizmaterial; hence von early times carefully studied durch *Scandinavian, Dutch u. German writers*. [482, 483] *Literatur* *hierüber* p. 483, 84 *note* *1*.

Die *peatbogs v. Nord Europa* ruhen generally auf *deposits of glacial and fluvio-glacial origin* – *boulderclay, sand, gravel u. löss*. Diese deposits bedecken fast continuously die *vast low-lying regions extending along the borders of the Nordsee u. Ostsee*, manchmal *forming wide plains* mit nur a few gentle undulations, manchmal *rising into low hills u. hummocks*; preserve *a dreary monotony of outline über einige 1000* □*miles*. In *Holland, Dänemark, Norddtschland* enormous tracts of country *covered mit heath u. bog*, die, obgleich beständig *encroached upon* by *agriculturists, noch eine der extensivsten Areas of uncultivated ground in Europa bilden*; die *bogs* beweisen, dass das Land nicht immer so *bare* war¸ die *great pine forests* noch an einigen Orten existirend in the *marine districts* nur schwache Repräsentanten der arborescent vegetation, früher den grösseren Theil von Nord Europa bedeckend. *Selbst in historischer Zeit waren die Wälder extensiver als jetzt*, aber *the true Age of Forests* goes back to an archaeological period.

3 *kinds of peat-bogs*, entsprechend dem britischen *meadow-bog, hillbog* u. *forestbog (bog mit buried forests)*. ⦗*Dänisch: Kjoermose* od. *Engmose, Lyngmose, Svampmose or Hoermose* u. *Skovmose;* *germanice* *: Wiesenmoor, Haidenmoor* od. *Hochmoor*, u. *Holzmoor od. Waldmoor*. Viele varieties of peat beschrieben durch die Deutschen wie *Sumpfmoor, Sumpftorf, or Moostorf (Sphagnum peat), Haidetorf oder Erikentorf (heatherpeat), Marschtorf* (marsh-turf) etc.⦘

Diese 3 kinds of bog gehn in einander über ohne scharfe Trennungslinien; die wichtigsten für diese Untersuchung die *forestbogs*, namentlich die *dänischen*, beschrieben durch *Prof. Steenstrup* . – Die Structur dieser forestbogs beweist: *Denmark* bare u. waldlos before the *peat* commenced to accumulate; its *surface was dappled mit lakelets u. pools* u. covered mit *scanty arctic flora*, indicating *climate wie das von Lappland u. fernen Norden*. Nach u. nach als *Clima* minder streng ward, *aspens u. pines* gradually overspread the land, die *thicker barks* der pines zeigen *härtere Winter* an als jetzt in Dänemark. Die *trees crowded* überall *along the margins der pools u. lakelets*, welche *durch waterplants u. mosses were converting into marshes. Wind* schleudert zeitweis – auch v. Alter fallend – od. *Schnee Bäume in die marshy basins, pools, u. swamps* u. werden dort graduell buried in the accumulating peatmatter. *Gradual change of climate* evinced *durch die Austrocknung der Basins* u. die *Erscheinung von Pines auf der Oberfläche der bogs selbst*; noch *grösserer change of climate* durch *advent der Eiche*, which eventually *supplanted the pine* u. den *Hauptbaum* der dän. Wälder bildete. Schliesslich *verschwinden die grossen Eichen* vom *margin* der *Skovmoser* od. peatbogs, u. *dichter Wuchs von sphagnum peat* gathers over their prostrate trunks, *forming the uppermost peat-layer*, auf dessen Oberfläche wuchs hier u. dort die *warty birch* (Betula verrucosa) u. *Alder* (Alnus glutinosa). Die *pine* seit histor. Zeiten kein *native* v. Denmark mehr; *Eiche* jetzt dort seltner u. on decline, the ground being occupied durch die *Buche als principal tree, von der no trace yet found in the bogs. Neolithic implements* found associated mit den *buried pines der bogs*, aber auch in *connection mit den oaks*. Während der *ascendancy der Eiche* scheint *Bronze* introduced worden zu sein in Denmark, doch dauert *use of stone implements* dabei fort, u. das *Age of Bronze* mag mit *Buchwald* zusammenfallen; jedenfalls entsprechen nicht, wie einige writers meinen, *pine, oak, beech* den *Stein- Bronze*- u. *Eisen ages*, respectively. – In *Norway* the *peatbogs* abound in buried timber; and in many cases the trees occur on *2 horizons* (nach andern auch mehren) etc. Merkwürdig, dass in *Norwegen* u. *Schweden* die *oaks* (buried under peat) *underlie* the *pine forests* die auch *overlaid by peat*, which [may] be as thick as the peat below.

*Neolithic implements* met zeitweise in *Scandinavian bogs*, generally not deeper down than *2 feet or so*, woraus *Blytt* schliesst dass in diesen *bogs nicht mehr als 2 feet of peat formed within historical times*. In fact, *rate at which peat grows*, regulated by the *supply of moisture* u. by *climatic conditions*; it forms at different rates in different regions; *selbes case in one and the same bog*, the bog *being dry* in some places, wo it actually wastes u. crumbles away, während *in other portions the mosses flourish more or less luxuriantly*. Aus der Wachsthumrate des peat in historischen Zeiten – mit veränderten klimatischen Bedingungen, daher nicht rückzuschliessen auf Vergangenheit. Z. B. *Schottland*; would be absurd to suppose that peat has never grown more rapidly als jetzt; die *Roman* u. *Anglo-Saxon* *relics in the bogs* zeigen dass früher rascherer growth desselben selbst in historical times; doch *nicht all the peat overlying a Roman axe or sword* formed *während Roman occupation*; metallic objects können leicht zu Tiefe von several feet *sink from the surface in soft peat*. Mr. *Kinahan* states, that in *certain Irish Bogs* „*each year’s growth* is represented *by a layer or lamina*, u. diese *lamina* in the *white turf (uppermost portion of a bog)* on average *one hundred to the foot*; in *brown turf (lower portion)* 200 or 300; u. im *black turf* (bottom turf) 600 to 800; aber the number of these laminae different in the different bogs, as one grows more rapidly than the other.“ So scheinen die *undrained bogs of Ireland* still increasing, während in *Schottland* ⦗wie in *Norway* u. *Sweden*⦘ *rate of decay in excess over that of growth*, obgleich in den *rainier districts* the evidences of arrested growth u. decay less conspicuous. Also *no exact data by which to compute the time required for the formation of a certain thickness of peat*; wäre auch of no use to compute time in past under different climatic conditions. Dennoch sicher dass *the bogs of great antiquity* u. dass often *several 1000 years* nöthig to form *a thickness of 20, or even* *7 feet* . – *Arctic flora* at the base of the *Danish forestbogs*; Mr. *Nathorst* hat dieselbe flora in *mehr als 20 localities in Südschweden* nachgewiesen. He has traced the *same arctic flora durch Germany hindurch into Switzerland*. – In the *environs of Troyes (Champagne)* the *small affluents der Seine* fliessen in Thäler, deren *bottoms* here u. there clothed mit *turbaries*, described u. examined by *M. Fliche* ; they yielded an abundant suite of *animal u. vegetable remains, zus. mit human relics*; die letztren plentiful, bestehn aus *charcoal, potsherds, broken u. worked bones, flint elements polished u. well chipped*; u. *others of much ruder workmanship, fragments of sandstone* u. *various objects in bronze u. iron*. The *stone implements* found in *the lower u. deeper part of the turbaries*, die *Bronze u. iron objects towards the upper surface*. During *the deposition of the clays* underlying the peat, das Land nach Fliche *covered* with *spruce firs, pines, willows, birches u. alders* etc. Mit accumulation des turbary *spruce firs* verschwanden zuerst, aber *pine* überdauert sehr lang; während sie zu schwinden beginnt, *oak u. elm* become abundant. Die *mosses* most characteristic of the *deeper part of the peat*, appear even in the *underlying clay; gehören alle zu species or varieties* which demand a very wet habitat u. some are most abundant nowadays in *Arctic regions*. Many have abandoned the *low grounds of France* altogether, some, such as *Hypnum scorpioides*, still linger on. [484–495]

Obgleich peatbogs [attain] greatest development in Northern Europe, doch auch nicht nur in *Northern France, Vosges, Schwarzwald, Baiern, Schweiz*, sondern auch in den *mountains of Auvergne u. Cevennes, Pyrenees, Northern Italy* u. vielen andern *elevated regions* der südlicheren Theile des Continents. *Prof. Ch. Martins* hat gezeigt, dass die *peatflora* owes its dissemination dem *cold der Glacial period* , *Prof. Heer* hat selbiges für die *arctic-alpine plants* nachgewiesen. ( *»D. Urwelt der Schweiz«.* 2. Ausg.) Peatbogs *asylums*, wohin die northern plants, *once common* to the low grounds of Europe, *retreated in postglacial times*, driven out by the returning hosts of the temperate flora. Sie flourish jetzt nur an *Orten*, *die wegen ihrer elevation* od. auch bloss wegen *humidity* u. andren ungünstigen Bedingungen nicht besucht durch temperate species. Später *Prof. Engler* (»Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzen« ) zeigt, that the *glacial or arctic element in the peat-flora* more marked than at first appears; meint dass die *formation der peatbogs* am *northern foot der Alpen während der Glacial Period begann*.

*Bei den andern postglacial u. recent deposits* – the *fluviatile u. lacustrine alluvia, shellmarl, calcareous tufa* etc unterscheiden auch *French, German u. Italian geologists* die *postglacial alluvia v. den older river-deposits des Pleistocene Age*. Die *jüngern deposits* occupy unveränderlich the *bottoms der valleys*, während die *ältern Pleistocene loams u. gravels* oft in *terraces to higher levels* steigen, which *often present cliffs or bluffs* against which the modern alluvia abut. Diese appearances well shown in den *Thälern der Seine, Rhein, Weser, Donau, Po, Rhone*. Generally the *postglacial fauna des Continents* selbe wie die der postglacial u. recent deposits of Britain. – The *lowest beds of peat* enthalten *no human implements* od. die *of Neolithic age*; *über diesen* occur *relics of Bronze*, or *more recent times*. [495, 496]

### IX)

*Verbreitung v. Pflanzensamen über Land*, u. wenn *land surface nearly continuous* – obgleich durch Meer etc getrennt – durch *Wind, ocean currents* u. *birds*. – The *existing floras of Spitzbergen, Greenland, Iceland u. Faeröe* seem to establish the fact of a *postglacial landconnection mit Nordwest Europe* zu einer Zeit wenn climate more genial than at present. – The *chief climatic vicissitudes of Glacial, Interglacial u. Postglacial epochs* scheinen unabhängig gewesen zu sein von *all movements of elevation u. depression of land*; manchmal *intense arctic conditions coincided mit elevation*, aber ebenso oft das Gegentheil der Fall, wie proved by *deposits mit arctic shells in Canada, Scandinavia, Scotland*. Andrerseits manchmal *a genial climate* concurred mit *a period of submergence*, wie during the *formation of the Postglacial shellbeds of Spitzenbergen u. Norway*, aber oft *genial conditions* contemporär mit a much wider extent of land surface in northern regions. [520, 521]

*It is to long-continued cold winds and gales that the absence or scarcity of trees in the higher latitudes is due.* [523]

M. *Adhémar* *u. Dr. Croll* have pointed out that *sea-level may rise without any movement of the land itself*; in glacial periods z. B. a *great accumulation of ice in northern regions would of itself cause a rise of the sea by displacing the earth’s centre of gravity*, u. wie Dr. Croll suggests, some of *our raised-beaches* may indicate periods *when the ice* of *north polar regions attained a considerable augmentation*, während zugleich das *ice der Antipodes suffered a corresponding diminution*. [525]

*Geikie* suspects that the *rainy period* to which he attributes by far the larger portion of the buried trees in the upper part of the Brit. peatbogs, *had passed away or become largely modified* schon in Römerzeit. *Agricultural progress*, however, has *so greatly interfered with natural operations*, dass unmöglich to say *to what extent the changed conditions are due to a lessened rainfall. Blytt* mit Bezug auf *Norway* thinks that the *present is somewhat drier*, the *peat of the last rainy period* being sorely wasted and decayed, *even* in *the rainy district of Floröe wo die remaining masses of sphagnum are overgrown mit lichen* u. *heather*. In zahlreichen places the *bogs are often covered* ganz u. gar *mit heather u. small trees*. Und, fügt er hinzu, there are many signs, dass *die continental species of plants* – those which flourished *most during the dry periods – have again begun to extend themselves*. [532, 533]

*Neolithic man* an occupant of the *British area during the genial postglacial period*, denn seine relics in the *lower forest-layers* of our peatbogs, both *in inland u. maritime districts* (ebenso in the equivalent accumulations des Continents). Aber *neolithic relics* noch nicht gefunden *at a lower horizon* – in those *freshwater layers under the bogs* in which the *arctic willow* and its congeners occur. Danach *Neolithic man* appeared erst, nachdem climate lost its arctic character u. *Forest Age*. Wahrscheinlich the *great movement of submergence*, which was to result in the separation of the Brit. area, machte darauf progress, *climate becoming gradually wetter u. colder*; by u. by *North Sea appears*, sea reached higher level as on our shores than now. *Neolithic man* then lived upon our shores u. accumulated his *kitchen-middens*. Climate wet u. cold, local glaciers appeared in many mountain-valleys etc etc. Prevailing character: *Great destruction of forests* u. *their entombment in growing peat*. Danach belong the *Danish kitchen-middens*, im Gegensatz zur Ansicht vieler Archäologen, *to a comparatively late part der Neolithic period*; jedenfalls sind sie *viel jünger* als die *neolithic relics* von den Brit. *oldest submarine peat-beds* u. *v. der lowest forest-layer of our deepest inland bogs*. – Darauf wieder *trockne Epoche*, während deren wide areas of marsh-land ausgetrocknet u. overrun by new forest-growth; die *sea* had retreated (in Britain) to a somewhat lower level than at present, u. um *diese Zeit knowledge of Bronze* introduced in Britain; *auf Continent* früher, aber keine geological evidence – *wann*? Zu schliessen von evidence by Danish peat, *the commencement* of *Bronze period* may date back *to the close of the genial postglacial* epoch, als noch *oak-forests* einnahmen weite areas in den maritime districts of North Europe, die später grossen Theils bared of trees u. overspread mit boggy wastes. – Nach dem *second age of tree forest* wieder relapse to colder u. wetter conditions (dies 2nd forest age represented by the *upper forest-layer* *of* *Brit. bogs*.) Decay of most of the great pine forests in Ireland, Scotland u. North England u. der overthrow der buried trees of the *upper forest-layer* in the *peat* of *Holland, East Friesland, Oldenburg, Lüneburg, Cimbric peninsula, Mecklenburg, Pomerania* etc. Wahrscheinlich *Iron age began during this wet period* –. *K. E. Adolf v. Hoff:* *„Geschichte der durch Ueberlieferung nachgewiesnen natürlichen Veränderungen der Erdoberfläche“.* *(1822–1834)* [535–538]

In *peat of Britain, Norway, Sweden u. Germany* the *lower forest-layer* besteht zum Theil aus *oaks* u. z.Th. aus *pines* u. other trees, während in den *Danish bogs* the *oak* lies above the *pine*. Sache die: *pine* was *the first* tree to *form forests* in the *low grounds of Northern Europe*, from which it gradually retired mit Eintritt of more genial conditions; u. *if all our forest-bogs* had been formed in *depressions* like those of the *Danish* Skovmoser, so würde pine ihren *bottom* bilden. Aber most of *our forests* grew upon *open ground*, the trees would rot u. decay as they fell, and this process continue until the pine had been gradually supplanted by the oak, the former, however, continuing to grow in suitable localities. Dann bei Eintritt der *wet period*, when forests decayed u. buried in peat, *pine u. oak* found upon one and the same horizon, each occupying the position which had been most suited to its requirements. The *Danish bogs* dagegen seem to have existed as *marshes von close der glacial period*, so that they contain *an uninterrupted record of the changes*, while most of our bogs u. entsprechenden in *Norway, Sweden, u. Germany* did not come into existence until *after the oak* had spread abundantly into the most northerly regions. [535/536, n. 1]

### X. Conclusion.

Sind zunächst: »*Identity of Pleistocene or Quaternary Period* with *Preglacial u. Glacial times*. – *Alternations of cold and genial climates in Pleistocene Period.* – *Testimony of Fauna and Flora.* – *Palaeolithic man lived through the Pleistocene Period.* – *Testimony of the Pleistocene riverdeposits as to climatic conditions.* – *Evidence by cave-accumulations* – *Glacial and Interglacial accumulations* *contemporaneous with river-gravels etc and* *cave-accumulations* – *Distribution of ossiferous and Palaeolithic river deposits* – *Last cold epoch of glacial period closes the record of Pleistocene times.* – *Palaeolithic implements in Interglacial deposits at Brandon; in Pleiocene or early Pleistocene beds of St. Prest.* – *Pliocene and Miocene Man.*« (*p. 539.*)

*Pleistocene or Quartenary Period* began when the *genial climatic conditions of the* *Pleiocene* were passing away u. *endet mit last cold epoch of the Ice Age*. The *fauna and flora of the Interglacial beds* agree durchaus mit denen der *Pleistocene river-gravels, lignites, travertines, loams u. cave-accumulations*; in both series of deposits the *plants and animals associated mit relics of Palaeolithic man*, während keine Spur v. letztrem noch v. den characteristic animals der Pleistocene Period irgendwo met with in *Postglacial age*.

Die *organic remains der Pleistocene Period* zeigen grössten Contrast, strangest mixture of *southern and arctic plants u. animals*. in regions, wo weder die ersteren noch die letzteren heut zu Tag möglich. Also: the *fauna and flora der Pleistocene Period bears witness to great secular changes of climate* ⦗einmal z. B. fig-tree, judas-tree u. Canary laurel in Nordfkch; später Palaeolithic man *hunts reindeer in Southern France* u. *the* arctic willow and its congeners grew at low levels in Central Europe. *Ebenso z. B. land and freshwater molluscs*; species z. B. now restricted to the *higher Alps and northern latitudes* that formerly abounded in *Middle Europa* u. their shells occur commingled in the same deposits with the remains of lemmings, marmots, reindeer, and other northern and mountain-loving animals.⦘ Palaeolithic man lived in Europe neben southern animals, wenn singularly genial and equable climate prevailed, u. ebenso *denizen of* Europe, when ganz entgegengesetzte klimatische Bedingungen. [539–541]

*Pleistocene fluviatile deposits* beweisen extraordinary changes of climate; some *portions der deposits* zeigen *action v. Flüssen* wie sie now drain the *temperate regions of Europe*; *other parts der deposits* indicate *excessive torrential force u. imply the passage of enormously-flooded rivers* u. of *broad sheets of inundation-water*; oft in den gravels *large stones u. blocks nur transportirbar durch river-ice*; ditto *häufiges Vorkommen of confused u. crumpled bedding* in denselben deposits *showing wo das Eis had packed u. run aground*. Die *ancient river deposits* cloaking the *sides u. bottoms unsrer Thäler* wurden laid down *während diese valleys langsam ausgehöhlt wurden*, so dass die *gravels auf higher levels die ältesten sind* u. die *in den lower levels die jüngsten der series*. Entsprechend diesen *high- u. low-level gravels* sind *high- u. low-level loams*; sie sind die *flood-deposits accumulated by muddy rivers from time to time wenn sie rose to considerable heights above their normal levels*. *(Prestwich* *.)* Dahingegen so nicht erklärbar das: *Great development of Löss Beds*: sie bedingen mehr od. minder *plötzliches Schmelzen* – in *Frühling* u. *Sommer* – von *enormen Behältern*\*reservoirs von Schnee u. Eis*, so dass das Wasser von den Bergen u. elevated regions herabstieg u. die *Thäler füllte to overflowing*; der während solcher Ueberschwemmungen deponirte *mud* ist the *finely-levigated* (fein zerriebne, zu Staub zerriebne) *Sediment* nur antreffbar in *glacial rivers* od. in *Strömen* geschäftig engaged *in washing u. denuding clays and loams of glacial origin*. Löss od. Lehm auf *valley-slopes* u. auf *tableland extending between the valleys*, i. e. *low-level* (der erstere) u. *high-level löss* (letztere auf den tablelands) . Der *high-level löss zuerst laid down* bevor die Thäler ausgehöhlt zu ihrer gegenwärtigen Tiefe; unannehmbar Hypothese von flood-waters gross genug to fill valleys v. solcher Tiefe, u. to drown wide regions beyond, bedeckend hohe Tafelländer u. rising to some height upon many hill-slopes. Der *upland-löss* zurückzudatiren to the *earlier stages of the pleistocene period*. Aber lang nachdem die Thäler sehr vertieft durch river-erosions *floods continued* to take place u. nachdem die streams *ihre* *Kanäle bis fast* zu ihrer gegenwärtigen Tiefe ausgehöhlt u. die Thäler ziemlich ihre jetzige Gestalt besassen, folgte a *final epoch of great inundations*; diesen *concluding floods der Pleistocene Period* gehört die *Bildung des grösseren Theils des valleylöss*; *Rhein, Donau, Seine, Garonne* etc poured immense volumes of water down, aber als a rule *did not succeed in filling the valleys to overflowing*.

Period wo *rivers flowing with equable volume, nicht subject to excessive floods* – a prolonged period of repose – angezeigt 1) in valley-slopes coated in some places with considerable accumulations of *calcareous tufa charged mit leaves of laurel, figs, sycamore, ash, willow* etc u. many *land-shells*; 2) *finely-bedded deposits of gravel and sand* forming no inconsiderable portion of the Pleistocene river-accumulations.

Andrerseits *tumultuous coarse gravels, mit disturbed bedding* u. *ice-floated erratics*, betoken *turbulent waters, river-ice*, gradual melting of interbedded masses of frozen snow, while the *thick and widely-spread loams* tell of enormous floods u. inundations. The *hill-löss* shows dass such extreme conditions occured *in early Pleistocene time* u. die *position of the valley-löss* – at the *closing scene of the Pleistocene period*. [541–543]

*Selbe alternative climatic changes* indicated by the cave-accumulations. Die last epoch der Pleistocene period indicated durch den *Character der organic remains* (in den caves), met in the uppermost layer od. layers; ferner, wie in *Victoria cave in Yorkshire* u. many Belgian caves – *occurrence of glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits*; auch die *coarse breccia u. numerous large limestone-blocks overlying the Pleistocene fossiliferous strata in many caves*, chiefly originated durch *action of severe frost* u. gehören meist dem close der Pleistoc. Period. – Während der grossen *climatic changes in Pleistocene* – wenn seine alluvial u. cave-deposits accumulated, – the *fauna and flora* were compelled to perform *secular migrations*.

Andrerseits *Ice Age* war nicht *beständig arctic*, interrupted *zeitweis*\mehrmals durch angenehme *Interglacial epochs*, während deren die *central u. Northwestern areas* selbe Fauna u. Flora hatten, die wir in *river- u. cave-accumulations* finden. In fact *Pleistocene u. Glacial Periods* identisch. The valley-löss is the *youngest alluvial deposit* of Pleistocene age, ditto the latest fluvio-glacial accumulation of the Glacial Period – the loam carried down by the enormously flooded rivers of the last cold epoch of the Ice age. – Die *ossiferous u. Palaeolithic* river-deposits occur as *superficial deposits* nur in den regions die *nicht subjected* to glacial abrasion, or covered mit glacial accumulations during the *last phase des Ice Age*; sie sind entweder ganz abwesend oder dürftig entwickelt in areas overflowed durch das Eis der letzten kalten Epoche; u. wenn sie in solchen regions vorkommen, sind sie *stets buried under glacial od. fluvio-glacial detritus*. In one word, die *Pleistocene river-gravels of France u. Southern England* are represented durch die *Interglacial beds of alpine u. northern regions*, same fauna u. flora, same physical conditions. In jedem Theil Europa’s die *jüngsten Pleistocene deposits* mit ihren mammalian remains u. relics of Paläolithic man zeigen die cold conditions der letzten Ice age phase; in *nördlichen u. alpine regions* sind sie bedeckt mit *morainic materials*; in den *greater river-valleys* liegen sie verborgen unter *sheets of flood-loam*; in *vielen Höhlen* sind sie overlaid mit *similar loam* od. *coarse breccia* indicative of severe frost; selbst in den *more southern latitudes* they lie *buried unter dicken heaps of frost-riven débris*, which no longer accumulates, sondern wastes away unter present climatic conditions, während *in no part of Europe Pleistocene deposits ever rest* upon *the glacial, fluvio-glacial, u. subaerial accumulations der latest glacial epoch*. [543–545]

Die *Palaeolithic implements* discovered at *Brandon, unter* dem great *chalky boulder-clay of East Anglia* beweisen dass Palaeolithic [man] lebte *vor climax der Glacial Period*, als das *Northern mer de glace* its greatest development erreichte. Aber lebte er *vor advent der Glacial period*, nämlich *zur Zeit wo der Cromer boulder-clay was deposited*? In *Frankreich* implements detected in den *sand-deposits zu St. Prest*, die bald der *late Pliocene [period]* , bald dem *early Pleistocene* assignirt werden; daher zu schliessen dass *Palaeolithic man entered Europe before the genial climate der Pliocene period had passed away*; jedenfalls aber *in early Interglacial time*. Nach der evidence von Prof. *Capellini* ⦗dieser glaubt in *Pliocene strata* the *bones of a whale* (Balaenotus) entdeckt zu haben marked mit *incisions* u. cuts nur producirbar durch man-made sharp instrument; dies disinterred v. *Pleiocene of Poggiarone im Thal des Fine* [343, 344]⦘ man dates back to earlier time than *close des Pliocene*. Wenn die *implements of Thenay* (Miocene) of artificial origin, rationeller sie man zuzuschreiben als mit *M. Mortillet* einem hypothetischen *man-ape*. [545, 546]

Was wurde aus dem *Paläolithic man* nach Ende der Pleistocene Period? Mit Bezug auf Dawkins der unter anderm jenen man mit *Eskimo* identificirt wegen *absence of pottery* beiderseits, sagt Geikie : »It is difficult to make and still more difficult to preserve *coarse pottery in an arctic climate*.« (p. 549) Es war kein sudden change v. den *extreme conditions der Glacial Period* to the *temperate climate* in *Postglacial times*; *animals u. plants* konnten daher emigrate *northwards*, ebenso langsam u. beständig (wie sie vorher von *Nord nach Süden* emigrirt) during the approach of the latest cold epoch of the ice age; *reindeer*, we know, and its old associates, returned to their old haunts in the North; wir finden daher ihre remains nicht nur in den *late glacial deposits*, sondern auch in *postglacial alluvia and peat of Central u. Northwestern Europe*; aber wohin immer die *reindeer-hunters of Périgord* emigrirt, nicht nordwärts durch die regions which they occupied während Interglacial times. Nehmen wir *alle solche Punkte* in Europa, wo die *deposits der last glacial period spread – upper boulder-clay, morainic débris, diluvial gravel u. sand, löss u. Lehm, subaërial angular drift* – keine Spur des Paläolithic man. – Was aber *Périgord u. die Pyrenean regions betrifft* finden wir in the caves dieser districts selbe abrupte Demarcationslinie zwischen Palaeolithic u. Neolithic, Pleistocene u. Postglacial, wie in the caves v. England, Belgien etc. In einigen *Pyrenean caves*, wie in that of *Gourdan*, described by *M. Piette* certain appearances dass hier Palaeolithic age merged somewhat suddenly in Neolithic. Dies view of *M. de Quatrefages* , stützt sich namentlich auf die Results obtained durch *Lartet* *u. Duparc* in dem rock-shelter of *Sorde, Departement der Basses Pyrénées* wo a superficial stratum of Neolithic relics resting auf Palaeolithic accumulation with the upper portion of which it was partly confounded. Im *lower part der Palaeolithic beds human skull u. bones found*, mit *necklace of the teeth of lion u. bear*, while in the *upper portion*, consisting largely of charcoal, *Palaeolithic implements* u. *barbed arrows* of the *„Magdalenian type“*, mixed damit bones of ox, horse, u. *reindeer*, dieses rarer. In der overlying (see p. 5 *des Hefts*) Continuation of p. 126) Neolithic layer, composed chiefly of human bones, obtained several worked flints *resembling those of the beds below* u. a *triangular dagger* of unmistakable Neolithic origin, etc. Now the *human remains of both levels* referred by *Hamy* , mit dem *Quatrefages* *agrees* , to the *same race of people*, which they call *„Cro-magnon race“ deren types* die *skulls of an old man and a woman* obtained mit vielen mammalian remains of the Pleistocene age *von a cave* at *Les Eyzies* on the banks of the Vezère. „is it not evident“, says *Quatrefages* , „that this *race must have known both the latest time des Reindeer age, u. die earliest der present epoch*?“ Sie haben diesen Cro-Magnon type in vielen andren Neolithic stations entdeckt, ganz unzweifelhaft aber nach *Hamy* in den *Canary Islands u. Teneriffe* etc. „Vielleicht diese reindeer-hunters of Périgord, sagt Hamy, a branch of an *African* population which had *emigrated to France* zus. mit Hyäne, Löwe, Hippopotamus etc!“– [550–553]

Nach Dr. *Croll’s* *Theorie* the *Pleistocene era* corresponded with the *latest period of excessive eccentricity of the earth’s orbit*; danach the *beginning of the Palaeolithic age* must go back *some 200,000 years ago* etc. Waren aber *die greater changes of climate*, angezeigt durch die glacial, interglacial etc periods, brought about by *astronomical* and physical causes, so müssen diese selben causes operirt haben *at different u. widely separated epochs in the past* . Schon viele indications dafür noted in den Tertiary formations. Während der letzten Jahre hat Signor Gastaldi’s view dass *die great erratics* *of* *the Miocene of the Moncalieri-Valenza hills*, bei Turin, *of glacial origin sind* , *been extended to various other regions of Europe*. [559–561]

Geikie theilt die *Sedimentary Formations* so ein:

| 36) *Recent* | ┐ |  |  |  |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 35) *Postglacial* | │ | *Posttertiary* | ┐ |  |
| 34) *Pleistocene* *or Quatenary* (includes Glacial Formation) | │ ┘ |  | │ |  |
| 33) *Newer* *Pleiocene* . | ┐ | *Pliocene*. | │ | *Tertiary* or *Cainozoic* |
| 32) *Older* *Pleiocene* . | ┘ |  | │ |  |
| 31) *Upper Miocene*. | ┐ |  | │ |  |
| 30) *Lower Miocene* (includes most of Brown Coal formation of Germany) | │ ┘ | *Miocene*. | │ |  |
| 29) *Upper Eocene*. | ┐ |  | │ |  |
| 28) *Middle Eocene*. | │ | *Eocene* | ┘ |  |
| 27) *Lower Eocene*. | ┘ |  |  |  |
| 26) *Maestricht beds and Faxö chalk*. | ┐ |  |  |  |
| 25) *White Chalk*. | │ |  |  |  |
| 24) *Chloritic Series* | │ | *Cretaceous* | ┐ |  |
| 23) *Gault*. | │ |  | │ |  |
| 22) *Neocomian* | │ |  | │ |  |
| 21) *Wealden* | ┘ |  | │ | *Secondary or Mesozoic* |
| 20) *Purbeck Beds* | ┐ |  | │ |  |
| 19) *Portland Stone* | │ |  | │ |  |
| 18) *Kimeridge Clay* | │ |  | │ |  |
| 17) *Coral Rag* | │ | *Jurassic* | │ |  |
| 16) *Oxford Clay* | │ |  | │ |  |
| 15) *Inferior Oolite* | │ |  | │ |  |
| 14) *Lias* | ┘ |  | │ |  |
| 13) *Rhaetic or Penarth Beds* | ┐ |  | │ |  |
| 12) *Keuper* | │ | *Triassic* | │ |  |
| 11) *Muschelkalk* | │ |  | ┘ |  |
| 10) *Bunter Sandstein* | ┘ |  |  |  |
| 9) *Permian* |  | *Permian* | ┐ |  |
| 8) *Coal-measures* | ┐ |  | │ |  |
| 7) *Carboniferous Limestone* | │ | *Carboniferous* | │ |  |
| 6) *Lower Limestone Shale etc* | ┘ |  | │ | *Primary or Palaeozoic* |
| 5) *Devonian Beds and Old Red Sandstone* |  | *Devonian and Old Red Sandstone* | │ │ │ |  |
| 4) *Upper Silurian* | ┐ | *Silurian* | │ |  |
| 3) *Lower Silurian* | ┘ |  | │ |  |
| 2) *Cambrian* |  | *Cambrian* | │ |  |
| 1) *Fundamental Gneiss* |  | *Laurentian* | ┘ |  |

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[^lic]: Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben.