Exzerpte aus Lewis Henry Morgan, „Ancient Society“ (1880–1881)

Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).¹ Traducción al español

Lewis H. Morgan: „Ancient Society“. London 1877.

A) Growth of intelligence through inventions and discoveries.

Part I. Ch. I.

I) Period of savagery.

1. Lower Status. Infancy of human race: lives in its original restricted habitat; subsists upon fruits and nuts; in this period commencement of articulate speech; ends with acquisition of fish subsistence and knowledge of use of fire. No tribes in this condition to be found in historical period of mankind.

2. Middle Status: commences mit fish subsistence and use of fire. Mankind spreads from original habitat over greater portion of earth’s surface. Such tribes existing still, f.i. the Australians and greater part of the Polynesians, when discovered.

3. Upper Status: Commences with invention of bow and arrow, ends with invention of art of pottery. In this state the Athapascan tribes of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, the tribes of the valley of Columbia u. certain coast tribes of North and South America; with relation to the time of their discovery.

II) Period of Barbarism.

1. Lower Status begins with art of Pottery. Für den folgenden Status (middle) comes in Betracht the unequal endowment of the 2 hemispheres, western and eastern; aber to adopt equivalents. In Eastern hemisphere the domestication of animals, in the Western the cultivation of Maize and plants by irrigation, zugleich mit use of adobe-brick and stone in house building. Im lower status z. B. the Indian Tribes of the U. St. east of the Missouri river, and such tribes of Europe and Asia practising pottery, but were without domesticated animals.

2. Middle Status. Commences in Eastern sphere with domestication of animals, in the Western with cultivation by irrigation and the use of adobe-brick and stone in architecture; ends with the process of smelting iron ore. In this state f.i. the village Indians of New Mexico, Mexico, Central America, Peru u. tribes in the Eastern hemisphere possessing domestic animals, but without knowledge of iron. Ancient Britons belong hierhin; they knew the use of iron and other arts of life – far beyond the state of development of their domestic institutions – thanks to the vicinity of more advanced continental tribes.

3. Upper Status. Commences with the smelting of Iron Ore, use of iron tools etc, ends with the invention of a phonetic alphabet, and the use of writing in literary composition. In the upper Status of Barbarism the Grecian tribes of homeric ages, Italian tribes before the founding of Rome (?), the German tribes of Caesar’s time.

III. Period of Civilization.

Begins with phonetic alphabet and production of literary records; as equivalent – hiperoglyphical writing upon stone.

Ueber Pottery specially to II Period. (1)

Flint and stone implements älter als pottery, found frequently in ancient repositories ohne pottery. Eh diese erfunden, commencement of village life, with some degree of control over subsistence, wooden vessels u. ustensils, finger weaving with filaments of bark, basket making u. bow u. arrow vor appearance of pottery. Diese nicht z. B. bei den Athapascans, the tribes of California u. of the valley of Columbia. It was unknown in Polynesia (except the islands of the Tongans u. Fijians), in Australia, California u. the Hudsons’s Bay Territory. Tylor bemerkt, dass die „art of weaving unknown in most of the islands away from Asia“ u. „in most of the South Sea islands there was no knowledge of pottery.“ Flint and stone implements gave the canoe, wooden vessels and ustensils, and ultimately timber and plank in house architecture. Boiling of food – vor pottery – rudely accomplished in baskets coated with clay, and in ground cavities lined with skin, the boiling being effected with heated stones.

The village Indians – wie die Zuñians, the Azteks u. die Cholulans (in Period II, (2) state) manufactured pottery in large quantities, and in many forms of great excellence; the partially Village Indians of the U. St. in Period II (1) wie die Iroquois, Choctas, Cherokees made it in smaller quantities u. limited number of forms.

Goguet – in last century – relates of Capt. Gonneville visiting the Southeast coast of South America in 1503, that he found „their household ustensils of wood, even their boiling pots, but plastered with a kind of clay, a good finger thick, which prevented the fire from burning them“ u. nach Goguet daubed die wooden combustible vessels mit clay to protect them from fire, till they found that clay alone would answer the purpose, and „thus the art of pottery came into the world.“

Nach Prof. E. T. Cox of Indianapolis, the analyses of „ancient pottery“ „belonging to the mound-builders age, are composed of alluvial clay and sand, or a mixture of the former with pulverized freshwater shells.“

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Development in different tribes u. families.

Einige so geographisch isolirt, dass sie selbstständig die verschiednen Phasen durchlaufen; andre adulterated durch external influence. So Africa was u. is an ethnical chaos of savagery u. barbarism; Australia u. Polynesia were in savagery, pure and simple.

The Indian family of America – unterscheidet sich dadurch v. jeder andern existirenden – stellten condition of mankind in three successive ethnical periods dar. When discovered, stellten sie jede der 3 conditions dar u. namentlich lower u. middle status of barbarism more elaborate u. complete als irgend andre portion of mankind. Die far Northern Indians u. some of the coast tribes of North and Southamerica were in the Upper Status of Savagery;

the partially Village Indians east of the Mississippi were in the Lower Status of Barbarism,

the village Indians of North and South America were in the Middle Status.

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Part I. Ch. II. Arts of subsistence.

Upon their (men’s) skill in this direction – arts of subsistence – the whole question of human supremacy on the earth depended. Mankind are the only beings who may be said to have gained an absolute control (?!) over the production of food. (19) the great epochs of human progress – identified, more or less directly, with the enlargement of the sources of subsistence. (l.c.)

1. natural subsistence upon fruits or roots on a restricted habitat. Primitive period; invention of language. Such kind of subsistence unterstellt a tropical or subtropical climate. Fruit and nutbearing forests under a tropical sun. (20) Were at least partially tree-livers (auf Bäumen lebend). (Lucret. de rerum natura lib. V) [l.c.]

2. fish subsistence; first artificial food, not fully available without cooking; fire first utilized for this purpose. – ⦗hunt for game too precarious ever to have formed an exclusive means of human support.⦘ Upon this species of food mankind became independent of climate and locality; by following the shores of the seas and lakes, and the courses of rivers could, while in the savage state, spread over the greater portion of the earth’s surface. Of the fact of these migrations … abundant evidence in the remains of flint and stone implements found upon all the continents. In Interval bis zur nächsten period important increase in the variety and amount of food; bread roots z. B. cooked in ground ovens; permanent addition of game through improved weapons, especially the bow and arrow; dies kam nach spear u. war club; gab the first deadly weapon for the hunt, appeared late in savagery; Bezeichnet (Bogen u. Pfeil) the upper status of savagery, was iron sword to barbarism, firearms to the period of civilization. bow u. arrow were unknown to the Polynesians in general, and to the Australians. (21) (22)

In Folge der precarious nature of all these sources of food, outside of the great fish areas, cannibalism became the resort of mankind. The ancient universality of this practice is being gradually demonstrated. (22)

3. Farinaceous food through cultivation.

Die cultivation of cereals scheint unbekannt gewesen zu sein im lower u. bis nah zum Ende des middle status of barbarism … in der Oestlichen Hemisphäre den tribes of Asia u. Europe. Dagegen im Lower Status of barbarism in der Westlichen Hemisphäre bekannt den American aborigines; sie hatten horticulture.

Beide Hemisphären ungleich endowed by nature: die Oestliche besass alle Thiere, save one, adapted to domestication u. a majority of cereals; the Western had one cereal (Maize) fit for cultivation, but that the best. Gave the advantage of condition in this period den American aborigines. Aber als die most advanced Eastern tribes, at the commencement of the middle period of barbarism, had domesticated animals giving meat and milk, without a knowledge of the cereals, ihre condition much superior to that of the American aborigines mit maize u. plants, aber ohne domesticated animals. Mit der domestication of animals scheint differentiation der Semitic u. Aryan families heraus aus der Masse der Barbaren begonnen zu haben.

Dass die discovery u. cultivation of cereals durch die Aryan family später als domestication von animals beweisen common terms for these animals in the several dialects der Aryan language, and no common terms for cereals or cultivated plants. Ζέα (einziges dieser Worte), philologisch = Sanskrit yavas (bedeutet in Indian barley, in Greek „spelt“).

Horticulture preceded field culture, as the garden (hortus) das field (ager); the latter implies boundaries, the former signifies directly an „inclosed field“. ⦗hortus an inclosed place for plants, hence a garden; from the same root cohors (auch cors, in einigen Mscpt. chors) a yard, a place walled round, a court, (auch cattle-yard); cf. gr. χόρτος, χορός; lat. hortus; german. garten, engl. garden, yard (ital. corte, french cour, engl. court) (ital. giardino, sp. u. french jardin)[⦘]

Tillage muss aber älter sein als der inclosed garden; erst: tillage of patches of open alluvial land, 2) enclosed space of gardens, 3) field by means of the plow drawn by animal power. Ob die Cultur solcher plants wie pea, bean, turnip, parsnip, beet, squash (Kürbisartige Frucht bei Massachusetts Indians) u. melon, one or more of them, preceded the cultivation of the cereals, wissen wir nicht. Einige v. diesen haben common terms in Latin u. Greek, aber keines davon common term mit Sanskrit.

Horticulture in Östlicher Hemisphere seems to have originated more in the necessities of the domestic animals than in those of mankind. Commences in the Western hemisphere mit Maize; led in America to localization and village life; tended bes. under the village Indians to take the place of fish and game. Von cereals u. cultivated plants mankind obtained their first impression of the possibility of an abundance of food. – Mit farinaceous food verschwindet cannibalism; it survived in war, practised by war parties, unter den American aborigines in the Middle Status of barbarism, z. B. unter Iroquois u. Azteks; but the general practice had disappeared. (Wurde in savagery practicirt upon captured enemies u. in times of famine upon friends and kindred)

4. Meat and Milk Subsistence. Absence of animals, adapted to domestication in Westlicher Hemisphäre ausser Llama. Die early Span. writers speak of a „dumb dog“ found domesticated in the West Indian Islands, ditto in Mexico u. Central America; sprechen auch von poultry u. turkeys on the American continent; the aborigines had domesticated the turkey u. die Nahuatlac tribes some species of wild fowl.

Diese Differenz u. die specific differences in the cereals beider Hemisphären producirten essential difference with that portion ihrer inhabitants who had attained to the Middle Status of Barbarism.

The domestication of animals provided a permanent meat and milk subsistence; tribes, die sie besassen, differentiated v. der mass of other barbarians. Den Village Indians ungünstig the limitation upon an essential species of food; haben inferior size of the brain verglichen mit den Indians in the Lower Status of Barbarism.

Vorzüge der Aryan u. Semitic families durch maintenance in numbers of domestic animals. Die Greeks milked their sheep as well as their cows u. goats. (Ilias IV, 433) Aryans to noch greater extent als Semites.

Domestication of animals – in östl. Hemisphäre – gradually introduced pastoral life, upon the plains of the Euphrates and of India u. den steppes of Asia; on the confines of one or the other of which the domestication of animals first accomplished. Sie kamen so von regions, die, so weit entfernt die cradle lands der human race zu sein, were areas they would not have occupied as savages or barbarians in the Lower Status of barbarism, to whom forest areas were natural homes. Nachdem sie sich gewöhnt an pastoral life, unmöglich for either of these families to reenter the forest areas of Western Asia and of Europe with their flocks u. herds, without first learning to cultivate some of the cereals with which to subsist the latter at a distance from the grass plains. Sehr probable that the cultivation of the cereals originated in the necessities of the domestic animals, and in connection with these western migrations; and that the use of farinaceous food by these tribes was a consequence.

In der Western Hemisphere die aborigines advanced generally into the Lower Status of Barbarism, u. ein Theil davon in Middle Status ohne domestic animals, ausser Llama in Peru u. upon a single cereal, maize, mit den adjuncts of bean, squash u. tobacco u. in some areas cacao, cotton u. Pepper. „Maize“ from its growth in the hill – which favoured direct cultivation – from its useableness both green and ripe, from its abundant yield u. nutritive properties, was a richer endowment in aid of early human progress als all other cereals together; hence remarkable progress der American aborigines ohne domestic animals; the Peruvians produced bronze, which stands next to the process of smelting iron ore.

5. Unlimited subsistence through field agriculture.

The domestic animals supplemented human muscle with animal power, new factor of the highest value. Später production of iron gab Pflug mit an iron point u. a better spade u. axe. Mit diesen u. aus der früheren horticulture, came field agriculture u. damit zuerst unlimited subsistence. Der plow drawn by animal power; damit entsprang thoughts of reducing the forest and bringing wide fields into cultivation. (Lucret. v. 1369). Dense population in limited areas became possible. Vor field agriculture schwerlich dass ½ Million Menschen held together u. developed under one government in any part of the earth. Wo exceptions, they must have resulted from pastoral life on the plains od. von horticulture improved by irrigation, under peculiar u. exceptional condition.

Morgan theilt die Familienformationen (p. 27, 28) ein in:

1. Consanguine family: intermarriage of brothers and sisters in a group; darauf founded (u. dient jetzt als evidence davon) das Malayan system [of] consanguinity.

2. Punaluan family: name derived von der Hawaiian relationship of Punalua. Founded upon the intermarriage of several brothers to each other’s wives in a group; and of several sisters to each other’s husbands in a group. „Brother“ includes here the first, second, third, and even more remote cousins, all considered as brothers; u. „sister“ includes first, 2^nd, 3^d and even more remote female cousins, all sisters to each other. Auf this form of family gegründet the Turanian u. Ganowánian systems of consanguinity. Beide Familienformen gehören zu period of savagery.

3. The Syndyasmian family: von συνδυάζω ⦗(paaren (συνδυάς gepaart. Eur.) Passiv: sich paaren od. begatten. Plato, Plutarch⦘ ⦗συνδυασμός Paarung, Verbindung Zweier. Plutarch.⦘ Founded upon the pairing of a male and a female under the form of marriage, aber ohne an exclusive cohabitation; ist germ der Monogamian family. Divorce or separation at the option of both husband u. wife. Diese Familienform gründet kein besondres Verwandtschaftssystem.

4. The Patriarchal family: founded upon the marriage of one man to several women. In Hebrew pastoral tribes the chiefs and principal men practised polygamy. Little influence on mankind for want of universality.

5. Monogamian family: marriage of one man with one woman, with an exclusive cohabitation; preeminently the family of civilized society, essentially modern. Auf diese Familienform gegründet an independent system of consanguinity.

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Part III.

Ch. I. The ancient family.

⦗Allerältestes: Hordenwesen mit promiscuity; no family; hier kann nur Mutterrecht irgendwelche Rolle spielen.⦘

Die Verwandtschaftssysteme gebaut auf different types of family; ihrerseits wieder evidence für Existenz der letzteren, die sie überleben.

Das älteste system of consanguinity, bis jetzt entdeckt, found unter den Polynesians, wovon die Hawaiian als typical genommen; Morgan nennts das Malayan system. Hier alle consanguinei fallen unter die relationship: parent, child, grandparent, grandchild, brother u. sister; keine andre Blutverwandtschaft; ausserdem die marriage relationships. Dies system came in with the »consanguine« family form u. beweist deren alte Existenz; das System prevailed sehr allgemein unter den Polynesians, obgleich die family unter ihnen übergegangen aus consanguine form in punaluan. Letztere von ersterer nicht genug verschieden, um eine Modification des auf erstere gegründeten Verwandtschaftssystems zu produciren. Intermarriage zwischen brothers u. sisters noch nicht ganz verschwunden aus den Sandwichinseln, als amerik. Missionäre sich vor 50 Jahren dort etablirten. Muss auch in Asien geherrscht haben, weil es die Basis des dort noch existirenden Turanian system.

Turanian system war allgemein unter den nordamerik. aborigines u. hinreichend auch in Südamerika nachgewiesen, found in parts of Africa, wo jedoch unter dessen tribes Verwandtschaftssystem sich mehr dem Malayan nähert. Turanisches System noch prevailing in Südindien unter den Hindus der Dravidian language u., in modificirter Form in Nordindien unter den Hindus sprechend dialects der Gaura language; ebenso in Australien in partially developed form. In den principal tribes der Turanian u. Ganowánian families producirt durch punaluan marriage in the group u. die organization into gentes, tending to repress consanguine marriages, by prohibition of intermarriage in the gens, wodurch [es] own brothers u. sisters von marriage relation ausschloss.

The Turanian system recognizes all the relationships known under the Aryan system, aber auch diesem unbekannte. In familiar u. formal salutation the people address each other by the term of relationship, nie by the personal name; wo keine relationship exists, durch „my friend“.

Bei Entdeckung der American aborigines war die family aus der punaluan in ihre syndyasmian form übergegangen; so dass die relationships recognized by the system of consanguinity in zahlreichen Fällen nicht die waren die wirklich in der syndyasmian family existirten; aber ebenso hatte Malayan system of consanguinity überdauert den Uebergang der consanguine family in die Punaluan. Gradeso überdauerte Turanian system of consang. den Uebergang der punaluan family in die syndyasmian. Die Familienform variirt schneller als systems of consanguinity which follow to record the family relationships. Die organization in gentes war nöthig to change the Malayan system in das Turanian; property in the concrete, with its rights of ownership u. inheritance, war nöthig, zusammen mit der monogamian family which it created, to overthrow the Turanian system of consanguinity and substitute the Aryan.

The Semitic, Aryan, od. Uralian system of consanguinity – defining the relationships in the monogamian family – was nicht based upon the Turanian system, wie dies war upon the Malayan, sondern superseded it among civilized nations.

Von den 5 family forms haben 4 existed in der historic period; nur die consanguine disappeared; can aber be deduced v. dem Malayan system of consanguinity.

Marriage between single pairs had existed from the older period of barbarism, under the form of pairing during the pleasure of the parties; wurde stabiler mit advance of society, mit progress durch inventions and discoveries into higher successive conditions. Man began to exact fidelity from the wife, under savage penalties, but he claimed exemption for himself. So unter den Homeric Greeks. Fortschritt v. Homerisch. Zeitalter bis dem von Pericles, with its gradual settlement into a defined institution. So moderne Familie höher als griech. u. röm.; Geschichte durchgemacht in histor. Zeit von 3000 Jahren durch die monogamische Familie u. Ehe. Der Fortschritt des alten complicirten »conjugal« system besteht in seiner successive reduction, bis reduced to zero in der monogamian family. Jeder der 5 family types belongs to conditions of society entirely dissimilar. Das Turanian system of consanguinity, which records the relationships in punaluan family, blieb wesentlich unverändert bis zur Etablirung der monogamian family, when it became almost totally untrue to the nature of descents, and even a scandal upon monogamy. z. B. unter dem Malayan system nennt ein Mann seines Bruders Sohn seinen Sohn, weil seines Bruders Frau auch seine Frau ist; u. seiner Schwester Sohn ist auch sein Sohn, weil seine Schwester auch seine Frau ist. Unter dem Turanian system ist seines Bruder’s Sohn immer noch sein Sohn, aus demselben Grund, aber seiner Schwester Sohn ist jetzt sein Neffe, weil under der gentile organization seine Schwester aufgehört hat, seine Frau zu sein. Unter den Iroquois, wo die family syndyasmian ist, nennt ein Mann seines Bruder’s Sohn seinen Sohn, obgleich seines Bruder’s Frau aufgehört hat, seine Frau zu sein u. so selbe Incongruenz mit grosser Anzahl andrer relationships, die der existing form of marriage aufgehört haben zu entsprechen. Das System hat die Gebräuche überlebt, worin es entsprang u. erhält sich fort unter ihnen, obgleich in the main untrue, für descents as they now exist. Monogamy kam auf to assure the paternity of children and the legitimacy of heirs. Turanian system konnte durch keine Reform ihm adaptirt werden; stand in schreiendem Gegensatz zur Monogamie; das System ward dropped; aber die descriptive method, stets employed durch die Turanian tribes when they wished to make a given relationship specific, wurde substituted. They fell back upon the bare facts of consanguinity u. described the relationship of each person by a combination of the primary terms; sagten so: Bruder’s Sohn, Bruder’s grandson; father’s brother; father’s brother’s son; each phrase described a person, leaving the relationship a matter of implication; so bei den arischen Nationen, in der ältesten Form bei den Griechischen, latein., sanskritischen, celtischen, semitischen tribes. (Old testament, Genealogies) Traces des Turanian system unter den arischen u. semit. nations down to the historical period, aber essentially uprooted, Descriptive substituted in its place.

Jedes der systems of consanguinity expresses the actual relationships existing in the family at the time of its establishment. Die relations v. Mutter u. Kind, Bruder u. Schwester, Grossmutter u. grandchild were stets versicherbar (seit Etablirung irgend einer Form von family), aber nicht die von Vater u. Kind, Grossvater u. grandchild; letzteres nur (mindestens officiell?) versicherbar in Monogamie.

Die systems of consanguinity sind classificatory oder aber descriptive. Unter dem ersten System consanguinei »classified« into categories unabhängig von ihrer Nähe od. Entfernung in degree von Ego; der selbe term of relationship applied to all the persons in the same category. z. B. meine eignen Brüder u. die Söhne von den Brüdern meines Vaters sind alle gleichmässig meine Brüder; meine eignen Schwestern u. die Töchter der Schwestern meiner Mutter sind alle gleichmässig meine Schwestern; such is the classification in Malayan u. Turanian systems. Im descriptiven System dagegen die consanguinei bezeichnet durch die primary terms of relationship od. combination dieser terms, wodurch die relationship jeder Person specific gemacht. So im Aryan, Semitic od. Uralian system, which came in with monogamy; später introducirt a small amount of classification durch inventions of common terms, aber die earliest form of the system – the Erse u. Scandinavian typical – purely descriptive. Der radicale Unterschied der Systeme resulted von plural marriages in the group in one case, from single marriages between single pairs in the other.

Relationships zweifach: 1) by consanguinity or blood; diese selbst zweifach, a) lineal u. b) collateral; a) lineal ist die connection unter Persons wovon eine von der andern abstammt; b) collateral ist sie, wo persons descend von common ancestors, aber nicht von einander. 2) by affinity or marriage; marriage relationships exist by custom. Wo marriage between single pairs, each person the Ego from whom the degree of relationship of each person is reckoned u. to whom it returns. His position in the lineal line, which line is vertical. Upon it, above and below him, ancestors and descendants in direct series from father to son; these persons together constitute the right lineal male line. Out of this trunk line emerge the several collateral lines, male and female, numbered outwardly; in einfachster Form with one brother and one sister etc:

Habe ich several brothers u. sisters, so constituiren sie mit ihren descendants so many independent lines, aber zusammen bilden sie my first collateral line in 2 branches, a male and a female etc etc.

Dies Zeug einfach summirt durch die Roman civilians ⦗Pandects lib. XXXVIII, title X. De gradibus, et adfinibus et nominibus eorum; u. Institutes of Justinian lib. III, title VI: De gradibus cognationis⦘; adoptirt durch principal European nations.

Römer geben bes. Namen:

patruus (for uncle on father’s side) u. amita (for aunt on father’s side);

avunculus (uncle on mother’s side) u. matertera (for aunt on mother’s side)

avus, grandfather, giebt avunculus (a little grandfather); Matertera soll herkommen v. mater u. altera = another mother. – Die Erse, Scandinavian u. Slavonic haben nicht diese röm. method of description angenommen.

The 2 radical forms – the classificatory u. the descriptive yield nearly the exact line of demarcation between the barbarous u. civilized nations.

Powerful influences existed to perpetuate the systems of consanguinity after the conditions under which each originated had been modified or had altogether disappeared.

In so complicated system wie das Turanian entwickelte sich natürlich divergence in minor particulars. Das system of consanguinity des Tamil people of South India u. das der Seneca-Iroquois, of New York, sind noch identisch through 200 relationships; a modified form of the system – standing alone – that of the Hindi, Bengali, Marâthi u. other people of North India, ist combination der Aryan u. Turanian systems. A civilized people, the Brahmins, coalesced with a barbarous stock, lost their language in the new vernaculars named, which retain the grammatical structure of the aboriginal speech, wozu das Sanskrit 90% of its vocables gab. Ihre 2 systems of consanguinity came into collision, the one founded on monogamy or syndyasmy u. the other upon plural marriages in the group.

Unter den Indian tribes von North America the family syndyasmian; aber lebten generally in joint-tenement houses u. practised communism within the household. Je mehr wir niedersteigen in der direction der punaluan u. consanguine families, the household group becomes larger, with more persons crowded together in the same apartment. The coast tribes in Venezuela, wo die family punaluan gewesen zu sein scheint, are represented by the Spanish discoverers (Herrera’s: History of America) as living in bell-shaped houses, each containing 160 persons. Husbands u. wives lived together in a group in the same house.

Part III. Ch. II. The Consanguine Family.

Existirt in primitivster Form nicht mehr selbst unter lowest savages. Sie ist aber bewiesen durch a system of consanguinity and affinity welches für zahllose Jahrhunderte überlebt hat the marriage customs in which it originated: das Malayan system; it defines the relationships wie sie nur in einer consanguine family existiren konnten; es besitzt an antiquity of unknown duration; die inhabitants of Polynesia included in this system, obgleich die eigentlichen Malays es in einigen Punkten modificirt haben. Hawaiian u. Rotuman forms typical; the simplest, therefore the oldest. Alle consanguinei, near u. remote, classified under 5 categories:

The 5 categories or grades in the Malayan system appear auch in den „Nine Grades of relations“ of the Chinese mit 2 additional ancestors u. 2 additional descendants.

The wives of my several brothers, own and collateral, are my wives as well as theirs; für die female, the husbands of her several sisters, own and collateral, are also her husbands.

The several collateral lines are brought into and merged in the lineal line, ascending as well as descending; so that the ancestors and descendants of my collateral brothers and sisters become mine as well as theirs.

All the members of each grade are reduced to the same level in their relationships, without regard to nearness or remoteness in numerical degrees. Auch bei andren Polynesian tribes – ausser Hawaians u. Rotumans – dies System; so unter den Marquesas Islanders u. den Maoris of New Zealand; den Samoans, Kusaiens, King’s Mill Islanders of Micronesia; zweifellos in every inhabited island of Pacific except where it verges upon the Turanian.

System based auf: intermarriage zwischen own brothers and sisters, and gradually enfolding the collateral brothers and sisters as the range of the conjugal system widened. In dieser consanguine family the husbands lived in polygyny u. die wives in polyandry. It would be difficult to show any other possible beginning of the family in the primitive period. All traces of it had not disappeared among the Hawaiians at the epoch of their discovery –

The system also founded upon the intermarriage of own and collateral brothers and sisters in a group.

The husband in diesem Sinn weiss nicht ob dies od. jenes Kind sein eignes Fabrikat; es ist sein Kind, weil das Kind einer seiner Frauen, die er mit seinen brothers, own od. collateral gemein hat. Die Frau kann dagegen ihre Kinder von denen ihrer sisters unterscheiden; sie wäre ihre step-mother; diese »Categorie« existirt aber nicht im System; ihrer Schwestern Kinder also ihre Kinder. Die Kinder dieser gemeinsamen Eltern könnten sich zwar von mütterlicher Seite unterscheiden, aber nicht von väterlicher: sind daher alle Geschwister.

The marriage relationship extended wherever the relationship of brother and sister was recognized to exist; each brother having as many wives as he had sisters, own or collateral, and each sister as many husbands as she had brothers, own or collateral.

Wherever the relationship of wife is found in the collateral line, that of husband must be recognized in the lineal, and vice versa.

Unter den Kaffern v. Südafrika die wives meiner Cousins – father’s brother[’s] son, father’s sister’s son, mother’s brother[’s] son, mother’s sister’s son – are alike my wives.

The larger the group recognizing the marriage relation, the less the evil of close interbreeding.

1820 the American missions established in the Sandwich islands, were shocked at the sexual relations; they fanden dort die punaluan family, with own sisters and brothers not entirely excluded, the males living in polygyny, the females in polyandry; the people had not attained the organization in gentes. Unwahrscheinlich dass die actual family among the Hawaiians was as large as the group united in the marriage relation. Necessity would compel its subdivision into smaller groups for the procurement of subsistence, and for mutual protection; individuals passed wahrscheinlich at pleasure from one of these subdivisions into another in the punaluan as well as consanguine families, giving rise to that apparent desertion by husbands and wives of each other and by parents of their children, mentioned by Rev. Hiram Bingham. (Missionair, amerik., in Sandwich islands) Communism in living must have prevailed both in the consanguine and in the punaluan family als requirement of their condition. It still prevails generally among savage and barbarous tribes. ⦗each smaller family would be a miniature of the group.⦘

Ueber Chinese System of 9 Grades see »Systems of consanguinity« etc p. 415, p. 432.

In Plato’s Timaeus (Ch. II) all consanguinei in the Ideal Republic to fall into 5 categories, in which the women were to be in common as wives and the children in common as to parents. (sieh meine Ausgabe p. 705, erste Columne) Hier dieselben 5 primary grades of relations, Plato bekannt mit hellenischen u. pelasgischen traditions, reaching back in the region of barbarism etc. Seine grades exact die der Hawaiians.

Der state of society indicated by the consanguine family points to an anterior condition of promiscuous intercourse (in der Horde!)), trotz Darwin. (See Descent of Man II, 360) Sobald die Horde would break up into smaller groups for subsistence, it would fall von promiscuity into consanguine families, welches die first »organized form of society«.

Part III. Ch. III. The Punaluan family.

Existed in Europe, Asia, America within the historical period, in Polynesia within the present century; widely prevailing in the Status of Savagery, remained in some instances among tribes advanced into the Lower Status of barbarism, u. im case der Britons, among tribes im Middle Status of Barbarism.

Geht hervor aus consanguine family durch gradual exclusion of own brothers and sisters from the marriage relation … Commencing in isolated cases, introduced partially at first, then becoming general, and finally universal among the advancing tribes, still in savagery … illustrates the operation of the principle of natural selection.

In dem Australian class system (sieh später) evident, that their primary object the exclusion of own brothers and sisters from the marriage relation, während (see the descents of these classes p. 425) the collateral brothers and sisters were retained in that relation. In der Australian punaluan group wie in der Hawaiian the brotherhood of the husbands formed the basis of the marriage relation of one group, and the sisterhood of the wives of the other … the Australian organization into classes upon sex – which gave birth to the punaluan group, which contained the germ of the gens – prevailed wahrscheinlich unter allen tribes of mankind who afterwards fell under the gentile organization. Vor der organization into gentes, which permanently excluded brothers and sisters from the marriage relation by an organic law, letztere noch frequently involved in Punaluan family, wie bei den Hawaiians, die keine organization in gentes noch das Turanian system of consanguinity hatten.

1) Punaluan family:

1860 said Judge Lorin Andrews, of Honolulu, in a letter accompanying a schedule of the Hawaiian system of consanguinity: „the relationship of pŭnalŭa is rather amphibious. It arose from the fact that 2 or more brothers with their wives, or two or more sisters with their husbands, were inclined to possess each other in common; but the modern use of the word is that of dear friend, or intimate companion.“ What Judge Andrews says they were inclined to do, and which may then have been a declining practice, their system of consanguinity proves to have been once universal among them. Weiter bezeugt durch die Missionäre. (see p. 427, 428) So schrieb Rev. Artemus Bishop, lately deceased, one of the oldest missionaries in these islands, der dem Morgan ebenfalls 1860 a similar schedule schickte: „This confusion of relationships is the result of the ancient custom among relatives of the living together of husbands and wives in common.“ Then punaluan family group consists of: one group: several brothers and their wives; other group: several sisters with their husbands; jede group including the children of the marriages.

Bei den Hawaiians a man calls his wife’s sister his wife; all the sisters of his wife, own as well as collateral, are also his wives. But the husband of his wife’s sister he calls pŭnalŭa, i.e. his intimate companion; and all the husbands of the several sisters of his wife the same. They were jointly intermarried in the group. Diese husbands waren probably keine Brüder, sonst would the blood relationship have prevailed über die affineal; but their wives were sisters, own and collateral; in such case the sisterhood of the wives the basis upon which the group was formed, and the husbands stood to each other in the relation of pŭnalŭa.

Die andre group rests upon the brotherhood of the husbands, and a woman calls her husband’s brother her husband; alle Brüder ihres Mannes, own and collateral, waren auch ihre husbands; but the wife of her husband’s brother stands to her in the relationship of pŭnalŭa. Diese wives generally nicht sisters, obgleich zweifellos exceptions in beiden Gruppen ⦗so dass auch Brüder Schwestern u. Schwestern Brüder in common hatten⦘. Alle diese wives zu einander in relationship of pŭnalŭa.

Brothers ceased to marry their own sisters, and after the gentile organization had worked upon society its complete results, their collateral sisters as well. But in the interval they shared their remaining wives in common. In like manner, sisters ceased marrying their own brothers, and after a long period of time, their collateral brothers; but they shared their remaining husbands in common.

Marriages in pŭnalŭan groups explain the relationships of the Turanian system of consanguinity. Giebt nun verschiedne Beispiele vom Ueberleben über savagery hinaus of punaluan custom; Caesar De bell. gall. über Britons in the Middle Period of Barbarism; Caesar sagt: »Uxores habent deni duodenique inter se communes, et maxime fratres cum fratribus parentesque cum liberis.« Barbarian mothers have not 10–12 sons, die als Brüder sich gemeinschaftliche Weiber halten könnten; aber das Turanian system of consanguinity liefert viele Brüder, weil male cousins, near and remote, fall in this category with Ego. Das »parentesque cum liberis« wahrscheinlich falsche Auffassung des Cäsar for several sisters sharing their husbands. Herodot über Massagetae in Middle Status of Barbarism. (l. I, c. 216) Herodots Phrase: »γυναῖκα μὲν γαμέει ἕκαστος, ταύτῃσι δὲ ἐπίκοινα χρέωνται« scheint auf Beginn der syndyasmian family hinzudeuten; jeder husband paired with one wife, who thus became his principal wife, but within the limits of the group husbands and wives continued in common. Die Massagetae, obgleich ignorant of iron, fought on horseback armed with battleaxes of copper and with copper-pointed spears, and manufactured and used the wagon. (ἅμαξα) Also nicht promiscuity supposable. Herodot, l. IV, c. 104, sagt auch v. den Agathyrsi: »ἐπίκοινον δὲ τῶν γυναικῶν τὴν μῖξιν ποιεῦνται, ἵνα κασίγνητοί τε ἀλλήλων ἔωσι καὶ οἰκήϊοι ἐόντες πάντες μήτε φθόνῳ μήτ’ ἔχθεϊ χρέωνται ἐς ἀλλήλους«. Punaluan marriage in the group erklärt besser diese u. similar usages in other tribes mentioned by Herodotus, than polygamy or general promiscuity.

Herrera, Hist. of America, sagt: (das gilt v. Zeit der first navigators who visited the coast tribes of Venezuela) „They observe no law or rule in matrimony, but took as many wives as they would, and they as many husbands, quitting one another at pleasure, without reckoning any wrong done on any part. There was no such thing as jealousy among them, all living as best pleased them, without taking offence at one another … the houses they dwelt in were common to all, and so spacious that they contained 160 persons, strongly built, though covered with palmtree leaves, and shaped like a bell.“

These tribes used earthen vessels, were in Lower State of Barbarism. ⦗derselbe Herrera, speaking of the coast tribes of Brazil: „they live in bohios, or large thatched cottages, of which there are about 8 in every village, full of people, with their nests or hammocks to lye in … they live in a beastly manner, without any regard to justice or decency.“[⦘]

Bei der Entdeckung of North America in its several parts, the punaluan family seems to have entirely disappeared; syndyasmian form of family, aber environed with the remains of the ancient conjugal system. Eine custom z. B. noch jetzt anerkannt in mindestens 40 North American Indian tribes. Heirathete ein Mann die älteste Tochter einer family, so durch custom entitled to all her sisters as wives when they attained the marriageable age. Dies Recht selten enforced wegen der Schwierigkeit several families to maintain, obgleich Polygamy allgemein anerkannt as privilege of the males. Früher – pŭnalŭa – own sisters went into the marriage relation on the basis of sisterhood; nach Absterben der pŭnalŭan family the right remained with the husband of the eldest sister to become the husband of all her sisters, if he chose. Dies genuine revival of the ancient pŭnalŭan custom.

2) Origin of the Organization into gentes.

Partial development of gentes in the Status of savagery, complete development in the Lower Status of barbarism. Germ of gentes found in the Australian classes wie in der Hawaiian punaluan group. The gentes are also found among the Australians, based upon the classes, with the apparent manner of their organization out of them … Its (the gentile organization’s) birth must be sought in pre-existing elements of society, and its maturity would be expected to occur long after its origination.

Two of the fundamental rules of the gens in its archaic form found in the Australian classes, the prohibition of intermarriage between brothers and sisters, and descent in the family line … und when gens appeared, the children are found in the gens of their mothers. Natural adaptation of the classes to give birth to the gens sufficiently obvious … Und in Australien the fact: gens here found (actually) in connection with an antecedent and more archaic organization, die still the unit of a social system, Platz später durch die gens eingenommen.

Germ of gens ebenso found in Hawaiian punaluan group, aber confined to the female branch of the custom, wo several sisters, own and collateral, shared their husbands in common. Diese Schwestern, mit ihren Kindern u. descendants through females, liefern the exact membership of a gens of the archaic type. Descent hier nothwendig traced durch females, da paternity der children nicht mit certainty ascertainable. Sobald diese specifische Form der Ehe in the group etablirte Institution, the foundation for a gens existed. Die Hawaiians did not turn this natural punaluan group into a gens, d.h. in eine Organisation beschränkt auf diese Mütter, Kinder u. Abkommen in der weiblichen Linie. Aber zu einer analogen Gruppe, resting upon the sisterhood of the mothers, or to the similar Australian group, resting upon the same principle of union, the origin of the gens must be ascribed. It took this group as it found it, and organized certain of its members, with certain of their posterity, into a gens on the basis of kin.

The gens sprang up in a family, which consisted of a group of persons coincident substantially with the membership of a gens.

Sobald sich die gens voll entwickelt u. ihren full influence on society ausübte »wives became scarce in place of their former abundance«, weil die gens tended »to contract the size of the punaluan group, and finally to overthrow it.« Die syndyasmische Familie wurde gradually produced within the punaluan, nachdem die gentile organization became predominant over ancient society. Als die syndyasmische Familie zu erscheinen begann u. die punaluan groups zu verschwinden, wurden wives sought by purchase and capture. Originating in the punaluan group, sprengte die gentile organization diese ihre Geburtsstätte.

3) The Turanian or Ganowánian System of Consanguinity.

This system u. die gentile organization, when in its archaic form, werden gewöhnlich zusammen gefunden. Die family active principle, steht nie still, passes von a lower form into a higher one. Systems of consanguinity sind dagegen passiv; recording the progress made by the family at long intervals apart, and only changing radically when the family has radically changed. ⦗Ebenso verhält es sich mit politischen, religiösen, juristischen, philosophischen Systemen überhaupt.⦘

Das Turanian system of consanguinity drückt aus die actual relationships wie sie in der Punaluan family existiren; es beweist seinerseits die Praeexistenz dieser Familie. Das System geht herab bis auf unsre Zeit in Asien u. America, nachdem die Familienform, hence Eheform, aus der es entsprang, verschwunden u. die punaluan family ersetzt durch die syndyasmische. Die substantiell identischen Formen des Verwandtschaftssystems der Seneca-Iroquois (used as typical für die Ganowánian tribes of America) u. des Tamil people v. Südindien (als typical f. die Turanian tribes of Asia) haben gemein über 200 relationships of the same person. (sieh die Tabellen p. 447 sq.) Natürlich einige, aber nicht substantielle diversities der Systems bei different tribes u. nations. All alike salute by kin; unter den Tamil people, when the person addressed is younger than the speaker, the term of relationship must be used; when older, salute by kin or by the personal name; bei den American aborigines, the address must always be by the term of relationship. Dies System was also the means by which each individual in the ancient gentes was able to trace his connection with every member of his gens, bis monogamy das Turanian system niederwarf.

Bei den Seneca-Iroquois the relationships of Grandfather (Hoc’-sote), grandmother (Oc’-sote), grandson (Ha-yä’-da) u. granddaughter (Ka-yä’-da) sind die most remote recognized in aufsteigender u. absteigender Linie.

Die relationships of brother and sister sind nicht abstract, sondern in der doppelten Form v. »älter« u. »jünger«, mit special terms for each:

Elder Brother Ha’-je; Younger Brother: Ha’-gă; Elder sister: Ah’-jē; Younger Sister: Ka’-gă.

The relationship of the same person to Ego in many cases different mit change of the sex of the Ego.

I^st collateral line: Für male Seneca his brother’s son and daughter are his son and daughter (Ha-ah’-wuk u. Ka-ah’-wuk) u. beide nennen ihn Vater (Hä’-nih). Ebenso seines brother’s grandchildren his grandsons (Ha-yä’-da (singular)[)] u. granddaughters (Ka-yä’-da); beide nennen ihn (Hoc’-sote) grandfather. Also his brother’s children u. grandchildren in same category with his own.

Ferner: für male Seneca his sister’s son and daughter are his nephew (Ha-yă’-wan-da) u. niece (Ka-yă’-wan-da), each calling him uncle (Hoc-no’-seh). So relationships of nephew and niece restricted to the children of a man’s sisters, own and collateral.

The children of this nephew and niece are his grandchildren, as before, u. he their grandfather.

Für Seneca female einige dieser relationships different; her brother’s son and daughter are her nephew (Ha-soh’-neh) und niece (Ka-soh’-neh) u. beide nennen sie aunt (Ah-ga’-huc). (andre terms als für nephew u. niece des male Seneca) The children dieser nephews u. nieces sind ihre grand-children.

Her sister’s son and daughter are her son and daughter, jeder v. beiden nennt sie Mutter (Noh-yeh’) u. deren children sind ihre grand-children, nennen sie grandmother (Oc’-sote). The wives of these sons and nephews are her daughters-in-law (Ka’-sä) u. die husbands dieser daughters u. nieces are her sons in law (Oc-na’-hose) u. they apply to her the proper correlative.

II^nd collateral line. For male u. female Seneca: father’s brother his or her father, calls [him or] her son or daughter. Also all the brothers of a father are placed in the relation of a father. Their sons and daughters are his or her brothers and sisters, elder or younger. Alias: the children of brothers are in the relationship of brothers and sisters.

Für male Seneca, the children of these brothers are his sons and daughters, their children his grandchildren; die children of these sisters his nephews and nieces, and the children of the latter his grand-children.

Für female Seneca: the children of these brothers her nephews u. nieces, the children of these sisters her sons and daughters, and their children alike her grandchildren.

Des father’s sister ist des Seneca’s aunt, calls him nephew, if he is a male. The relationship of aunt restricted to the father’s sister and the sisters of such other persons as stand to Seneca in the relation of a father, to the exclusion of the mother’s sisters. The father’s sister’s children are cousins (Ah-gare’-seh).

Für male Seneca: the children of his male cousins are his sons and daughters u. of his female cousins his nephews and nieces.

Für female Seneca: the id. id. are her nephews u. nieces and ditto her sons and daughters.

All children of the latter his or her grandchildren.

Für male Seneca: mother’s brother is uncle, calls him nephew; the relationship of uncle hier restricted to the mother’s brothers, own and collateral, to the exclusion of the father’s brothers. His children sind des male Seneca’s cousins, the children of his male cousins are his sons and daughters, of his female cousins his nephews and nieces;

für female Seneca the children of all her cousins are her grandchildren.

Female: The mother’s sisters are my mothers, the mother’s sister’s children my brothers and sisters, elder and younger. The children of these brothers are my sons and daughters, of these sisters my nephews and nieces; and the children of the latter my grandchildren.

Für female: reversed the same relationships as before.

Für male Seneca: Each of the wives of these several brothers and of these several male cousins is his sister-in-law (Ah-ge-ah’-ne-ah), each of them calls him: brother-in-law (Ha-yă’-o).

Each of the husbands of these several sisters and female cousins is my brother-in-law.

Traces of the punaluan custom remain here and there in the marriage relationship of the American aborigines.

In Mandan my brother’s wife is my wife, in Pawnee u. Arickaree the same; in Crow my husband’s brother’s wife is „my comrade“; in Creek my „present occupant“, in Munsee „my friend“, in Winnebago u. Achaotinne „my sister“. My wife’s sister’s husband is in some tribes „my brother“, in others „my brother-in-law“, in Creek, „my little separater“ whatever that may mean.

III^d collateral line: hier nur one branch (4 entsprechend den vorhergehenden) considered.

my father’s father’s brother is my grandfather, calls me his grandson. It places these brothers in the relation of grandfathers and thus prevents collateral ascendants from passing beyond this relationship. The principle which merges the collateral lines in the lineal line works upwards as well as downwards. The son of this grandfather is my father, his children my brothers and sisters, the children of these brothers are my sons and daughters, of these sisters my nephews and nieces; and their children my grandchildren. With Ego being a female the same relationships reversed as in previous cases.

IV^th collateral line. Auch nur eine branch dieser line betrachtet.

My grandfather’s father’s brother is my grandfather; his son also my grandfather; the son of the latter my father; his son and daughter my brother and sister, elder or younger; and their children and grandchildren follow in the same relationships to Ego as in other cases.

V coll. line: Classification same as in the corresponding branches of II^d, except of additional ancestors.

In Seneca-Iroquois terms for father-in-law (Oc-na’-hose), for a wife’s father, and Hä-gä’-sä for a husband’s father. Former term also used for a son-in-law. Terms also for stepfather (Hoc’-no-ese) u. stepmother (Oc’-no-ese), stepson (Ha’-no) u. stepdaughter (Ka’-no). In a number of tribes 2 fathers-in-law and 2 mothers-in-law are related, and terms to express the connection.

In about one half of all the relationships named, the Turanian system is identical with the Malayan.

Seneca u. Tamil unterscheiden sich von Hawaiian in den relationships which depended on intermarriage or non-intermarriage of brothers and sisters. In den 2 ersteren z. B. my sister’s son is my nephew, in dem latter my son.

The change of relationships resulting from the substitution der punaluan in place of the consanguine family turns the Malayan in the Turanian system.

In Polynesia family punaluan; system of consanguinity bleibt Malayan;

In Northamerica family syndyasmian, system of consanguinity bleibt Turanian;

In Europe u. Western Asia family becomes monogamian, system of consanguinity blieb für Zeitlang Turanian, bis fallend in decadence u. succeeded by the Aryan.

The Malayan system must have prevailed generally in Asia before the Malayan migration to the Islands of the Pacific; the system (Turanian) transmitted in the Malayan form to the ancestors of the three families, with the streams of the blood, from a common Asiatic source; afterward modified into its present form by the remote ancestors of the Turanian and Ganowánian families.

The principal relationships of the Turanian system created by punaluan family; several of the marriage relationships have changed. The brotherhood of the husbands and the sisterhood of the wives formed the basis of the relation fully expressed by the Hawaiian custom of pŭnalŭa. Theoretically the family of the period was coextensive with the group united in the marriage relation; but practically, it must have subdivided into a number of smaller families for convenience of habitation and subsistence. The brothers, by 10 and 12, of the Britons, married to each other’s wives, may indicate the size of an ordinary subdivision of a pŭnalŭan group.

Communism in living seems to have originated in the necessities of the consanguine family, to have been continued in the punaluan, and transmitted to the syndyasmian unter den American aborigines, with whom it remained a practice down to the epoch of their discovery. (And the South Slavonians? and even Russians to a certain degree?)

Part III. Ch. IV. The Syndyasmian and the Patriarchal families.

Syndyasmian od. pairing family gefunden bei Entdeckung der American aborigines unter der Portion derselben who were in the Lower State of Barbarism; married pairs, forming clearly marked though but partially individualized families. In dieser family der germ der monogamian family.

Verschiedne der Syndyasmischen families usually found in one house ⦗wie bei Südslaven: der monogamischen Familien⦘, forming a communal household ⦗wie Südslaven u. in some degree: Russian peasants vor u. nach Leibeignenemancipation⦘, worin the principle of communism in living was practised. Dies fact beweist that the family was too feeble an organization to face alone the hardships of life; aber founded upon marriage between single pairs. Die woman war jetzt etwas mehr als das principal wife of her husband; birth of children tended to cement the union and make it permanent.

Marriages hier founded not upon »sentiment«, but upon convenience and necessity. Die mothers arranged the marriages of their children, ohne deren previous consent od. knowledge; oft so strangers brought into marriage relation; at the proper time they were informed when the simple nuptial ceremony was to be performed. So usages bei Iroquois u. many other Indian tribes. Prior to the marriage, presents to the gentile relatives of the bride, partaking in the nature of purchasing gifts, became feature of these matrimonial transactions. The relation continued only at the pleasure of the parties, Mann oder Frau. Nach u. nach gebildet u. Kraft gewinnend public sentiment gegen diese separations; when dissension arose, erst Vermittlung versucht durch die gentile kindred of each party. Half das nicht, so verliess Weib das Haus ihres Manns, nahm mit ihren personal effects auch die Kinder, regarded as exclusive her own; wo des wife’s kindred predominated in the communal household, was gewöhnlich der Fall, the husband left the home of his wife. So continuance of marriage relations at the option of the parties.

Rev. Asher Wright, many years a missionary among the Senecas, wrote to Morgan in 1873 hierüber: „As to their families, when occupying the old long-houses … some one clan predominated, the women taking in husbands from the other clans; and sometimes, for a novelty, some of their sons bringing in their young wives until they felt brave enough to leave their mothers. Usually, the female portion ruled the house … the stores were in common; but woe to the luckless husband or lover who was too shiftless to do his share of the providing. No matter how many children, or whatever goods he might have in the house, he might at any time be ordered to pick up and budge, durfte nicht attempt to disobey. The house would be too hot for him, … he must retreat to his own clan; or, as was often done, go and start a new matrimonial alliance in some other. The women were the great power among the clans, as everywhere else. They did not hesitate, when occasion required, ‘to knock off the horns’, as it was technically called, from the head of a chief, and send him back to the ranks of the warriors. The original nomination of the chiefs also always rested with them.“ Cf: Bachofen: „Das Mutterrecht“, wo gyneocracy discussed.

Unter den Iroquois, barbarians in Lower Status of barbarism, but of high mental grade, and among the equally advanced Indian tribes generally, verlangten die Männer under severe penalties Keuschheit v. den Weibern, aber nicht reciprocal obligation; polygamy universally recognized as the right of the males, was in practice limited from inability to support the indulgence. In syndyasmian family – absence of exclusive cohabitation. The old conjugal system remained, but under reduced u. restricted forms.

Aehnlich unter den Village Indians in the Middle Status of barbarism. Nach Clavigero (Hist. of Mexico) settled the parents all marriages. „A priest tied a point of the huepilli (gown) of the bride with the tilmatli (mantle of the bridegroom) and in this ceremony the matrimonial contract chiefly consisted.“ Herrera (History of America) says „all that the bride brought was kept in memory, that in case they should be unmarried again, as was usual among them, the goods might be parted; the man taking the daughters, and the wife the sons , with liberty to marry again.“ Polygamy a recognized right of the males among the Village Indians, more generally practiced, than among the less advanced tribes.

In the punaluan family was more or less of pairing from the necessities of the social state, each man having a principal wife among a number of wives and vice versa; so that tendency in the direction of the syndyasmian family. Dies result hauptsächlich hervorgebracht durch die organization into gentes. In dieser organization:

1. Prohibition of intermarriage in the gens excluded own brothers and sisters, and also the children of own sisters, da diese alle in der gens. Bei subdivision der gens the prohibition of intermarriage – with all the descendants in the female line of each ancestor in the gens – followed its branches, for long periods of time, as shown was the case among the Iroquois.

2. The structure der gens created a prejudice against the marriage of consanguinei; war schon sehr general unter den American aborigines zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung. z. B. unter den Iroquois none of the blood relatives enumerated were marriageable. Since es ward nöthig to seek wives from other gentes they began to be acquired by negotiation u. by purchase; scarcity of wives statt previous abundance; so gradually contracted the numbers in the punaluan group. Such groups have now disappeared, obgleich das [Turanian] system of consanguinity remains.

3. In seeking wives they did not confine themselves to their own, nor even friendly tribes; captured them by force from hostile tribes; hence Indian usage to spare the lives of female captives, while the males were put to death. When wives acquired by purchase and by capture, they not so readily shared as before. This tended to cut off that portion of the theoretical group not immediately associated for subsistence; reduced still more the size of the family and the range of the conjugal system. Practically group limited itself, from the first, to own brothers who shared their wives in common and own sisters who shared their husbands in common.

4. Gens created a higher structure of society than before known. Die marriage of unrelated persons created a more vigorous stock physically and mentally; 2 advancing tribes blended, the new skull and brain would widen and lengthen to the sum of the capabilities of both. –

The propensity to pair, now so powerful in the civilized races, also nicht normal to mankind, but a growth through experience, like all the great passions u. powers of the mind.

Warfare under barbarians – from more improved weapons and stronger incentives – zerstört more life als Krieg unter savages; the males trieben stets the trade of fighting; left females in excess; this strenghtened the conjugal system created by marriages in the group; retarded the advancement der syndyasmian family. Dagegen improvement in subsistence, following the cultivation of maize u. plants, favored the general advancement der family (bei den American aborigines). The more stable such a family, the more its individuality developed. Having taken a refuge in a communal household, in which a group of such families succeeded the punaluan group, it now drew its support from itself, from the household and the gentes to which the husbands and wives respectively belonged. Syndyasmian family springing up on the confines of savagery and barbarism, it traversed the Middle and greater part of the Later Period of barbarism, bis superseded by a low form of the monogamian. Overshadowed by the conjugal system of the times, it gained in recognition with the gradual progress of society.

Morgan sagt, was oft anwendbar, von den Old Britons: (in the middle status of barbarism) »they seem to have been savages in their brains, while wearing the art apparel of more advanced tribes.«

Iron has been smelted from the ore by a number of African tribes, including the Hottentots, as far back as our knowledge of them extends. After producing the metal by rude processes acquired from foreign sources, they have succeeded in fabricating rude instruments and weapons. (463)

Die Entwicklungen müssen studirt werden in areas where the institutions are homogeneous. Polynesia u. Australia best areas for the study of savage society. North u. South America für condition of society in the Lower and Middle Status of Barbarism. M. nimmt an „Asiatic origin of the American aborigines“. Their advent in America could not have resulted from a deliberate migration, but due to the accidents of the sea, and to the great ocean currents from Asia to the Nortwest coast. (464)

Middle State of barbarism – in 16^t century – (splendidly) exemplified by the Village Indians of New Mexico, Mexico, Central America, Grenada, Ecuador and Peru, with its advanced arts and inventions, improved architecture, nascent manufactures and incipient sciences.

Upper Status of barbarism – Grecian, Roman, and later on the German tribes.

Patriarchal family of the Semitic tribes belongs to the Later Period of Barbarism and remained for a time after the commencement of civilization. Chiefs lived in polygamy; dies nicht the material principle of the patriarchal institution. Was diese Familienform wesentlich charakterisirt: Organization of a number of persons, bond and free, into a family, under paternal power, for the purpose of holding lands, and for the care of flocks and herds. Those held to servitude, and those employed as servants, lived in the marriage relation, and with the patriarch as their chief, formed a patriarchal family. Authority over its members and over its property was the material fact. Das Charakteristische: the incorporation of numbers in servile and dependent relations, before that time unknown. Paternal power over the group; with it a higher individuality of persons.

So auch die Roman family under patria potestas; Macht des pater über Leben u. Tod seiner Kinder u. descendants, wie über slaves und servants who formed the nucleus of the family and furnished its name; his absolute ownership of all the property they created. Without polygamy, the Roman pater familias was a patriarch and his family a patriarchal family. In mindrem Grad selbe Charakteristik der ancient family der Grecian tribes.

The patriarchal family marks the peculiar epoch in human progress when the individuality of the person began to rise above the gens, in which it previously had been merged; its general influence tended powerfully to the establishment of the monogamian family … Its Hebrew and Roman forms exceptional in human experience. Paternal authority »impossible« in the consanguine and punaluan families; began to appear as a feeble influence in the syndyasmian family, ward fully established under monogamy u. beyond all bounds of reason in the patriarchal family of the Roman type.

Part III. Ch. V. The Monogamian Family.

Mode: patriarchal family – in Latin or Hebrew form – zur typical form of primitive society zu machen. The gens, as it appeared in the later period of barbarism, was understood, but erroneously supposed to be subsequent in point of time to the monogamian family. The gens was treated as an aggregation of families; aber gens entered ganz in phratry, phratry in tribe, tribe into the nation; aber family could not enter entirely into the gens, because husband and wife were necessarily of different gentes. The wife, down to the latest period, counted herself of the gens of her father, and bore the name of his gens under the Romans. As all the parts must enter into the whole, the family could not become the unit of the gentile organization, that place was held by the gens.

family – modern appearence unter Roman tribes; beweist die Bedeutung von familia, contains same element as famulus = servant. Festus sagt: »Famuli origo ab Oscis dependet, apud quos servus famul nominabun(?)tur, unde [et] familia vocata.« Also in seiner primären Bedeutung family unbezogen auf das married pair od. dessen children, sondern in relation to the body of slaves and servants who labored for its maintenance and were under the power of the pater familias. In einigen testamentarischen dispositions ist Familia used als Equivalent für patrimonium, the inheritance which passed to the heir. Gajus instit. II, 102: »Amico familiam suam, id est patrimonium suum mancipio dabat.« Wurde introducirt in Lateinische Gesellschaft to define a new organism, the head of which held wife and children, and a body of servile persons under paternal power. Mommsen nennt die familia a „body of servants“. (Roman Hist.) Dieser term also nicht älter als the iron-clad family system of the Latin tribes, which came in after field agriculture and after legalized servitude, as well as after the separation of the Greeks and Romans. ⦗Fourier charakterisirt Epoche der Civilisation durch Monogamy u. Grund Privateigentum. Die moderne Familie enthält im Keim nicht nur servitus (Sklaverei) sondern auch Leibeigenschaft, da sie von vorn herein Beziehung auf Dienste für Ackerbau. Sie enthält in Miniatur alle die Antagonismen in sich, die sich später breit entwickeln in der Gesellschaft u. ihrem Staat.⦘

Mit der syndyasmischen Familie Keim der väterlichen Autorität, entwickelt sich je mehr die neue Familie monogamische Charaktere annimmt. Sobald property began to be created in masses u. the desire for its transmission to children had changed descent from the female line to the male, wurde zuerst a real foundation for paternal power gelegt. Gajus selbst sagt Inst. I, 55: »Item in potestate nostra sunt liberi nostri ⦗auch jus vitae necisque⦘, quos justis nuptiis procreavimus, quod jus proprium civium Romanorum est: fere enim nulli alii sunt homines, qui talem in filios suos habent potestatem, qualem nos habemus.« Monogamy appears in a definite form in the Later Period of Barbarism.

Old Germans: their institutions homogeneous and indigenous. Nach Tacitus marriages strict among them; contented themselves with a single wife, a very few excepted on account of their rank; husband brought dowry to his wife (not vice versa), nämlich a caparisoned horse and a shield, with a spear and sword; by virtue of these gifts the wife was espoused. (Germania, c. 18) The presents in the nature of purchasing gift – zweifelsohne früher für gentile kindred of the wife – damals schon went to bride. »Singulis uxoribus contenti sunt« (Germania, c. 18) u. die Weiber »septa pudicitia agunt«.

Wahrscheinlich family »sheltered itself in a communal household (wie Südslaven) composed of related families. When slavery became an institution, these households would gradually disappear.[«] ⦗In fact: die monogamische family unterstellt, um selbstständig, isolated, existiren zu können, überall a domestic class, die ursprünglich überall direct slaves.⦘

Homeric Greeks: Monogamian family of a low type. the treatment of their female captives reflects the culture of the period with respect to women in general; tent life of Achilles u. Patroclus; whatever of monogamy existed, was through an enforced constraint upon wives ⦗some degree of seclusion⦘.

Der change of descent von der female line to the male schädlich für Position u. Rechte der Frau u. Mutter; ihre Kinder transferred von ihrer gens zur gens ihres husband; sie verlor durch marriage ihre agnatic rights, erhielt kein Equivalent dafür; vor dem change, die Glieder ihrer eignen Gens predominated in the household; dies gave full force to the maternal bond u. machte women rather than men the center of the family. Nach dem change stand sie allein im household ihres husband, isolated from her gentile kindred. Under the prosperous classes her condition of enforced seclusion u. als primary object der marriage to beget children in lawful wedlock (παιδοποιεῖσθαι γνησίως).

Von Anfang bis End unter den Griechen a principle of studied selfishness among the males, tending to lessen the appreciation of women, scarcely found among savages … the usages of centuries stamped upon the minds of Grecian women a sense of their inferiority. ⦗Aber das Verhältniss der Göttinnen im Olymp zeigt Rückerinnerung an frühere freiere u. einflussreichere Position der Weiber. Die Juno herrschsüchtig, die Weisheit Göttin, springt aus Kopf des Zeus etc⦘ Es war vielleicht … diese Race nöthig, um aus Syndyasmian in Monogamian system herüberzukommen. Greeks blieben barbarians in their treatment of the female sex at the height of their civilization; their education superficial, intercourse with the opposite sex denied them, their inferiority inculcated as a principle upon them, until it came to be accepted as a fact by the women themselves. Das wife not companion equal to her husband, but in the relation of a daughter.

See Becker: Charicles.

Da die moving power which brought in monogamy was – the growth of property and the desire for its transmission to children – legitimate heirs, the actual progeny of the married pair – in the Upper Status of Barbarism sprang up – als protection gegen das survival of some portion of the ancient jura conjugalia – the new usage: the seclusion of wives; plan of [domestic] life among the civilized Greeks – a system of female confinement and restraint.

Roman family: Mater familias was mistress of the family; went into the streets freely ohne restraint by her husband, frequented with the men the theaters and festive banquets; in the house not confined to particular apartments, nor excluded from the table of the men; Roman females daher mehr personal dignity u. independence als griechische; aber marriage gave them in manum viri; war = daughter des husband; he had the power of correction u. of life u. death in case of adultery (mit concurrence of the council of her gens).

Confarreatio, coëmptio, usus, alle 3 Formen der röm. Ehe, gaben Frau in manus des Mannes, fell out under the Empire, when free marriage generally adopted, not placing the wife in manus des Mannes.

Divorce, von frühster Periode, at the option of the parties, (wahrscheinlich transmitted v. Syndyasmian family Period), selten in Republik. (Becker: Gallus)

Licentiousness – so auffallend in Grecian u. Roman cities at the height of civilization – in all probability remains of an ancient conjugal system, never fully eradicated, had followed down from barbarism as a social taint u. now expressed its excesses in the new channel of hetaerism.

Der Monogamian family entsprach Aryan (Semitic, Uralian) system of consanguinity and affinity. Gentes had their natural origin in the punaluan family. The principal branches of the Aryan stock organized into gentes when first known historically; zeigt dass sie auch dort anfingen u. aus der punaluan family entsprang Turanian system of consanguinity, still found connected with the gens in its archaic form among the American aborigines. Also auch dies ursprüngliches system der Aryans. Im Aryan system of consanguinity – Armuth of original nomenclature for relationship erklärt dadurch dass a large portion of the nomenclature of the Turanian system would fall out under monogamy. Common unter den several Aryan dialects nur: father u. mother, brother u. sister, son u. daughter u. a common term applied indiscriminately to nephew, grandson and cousin (Sanscrit: naptar, lat. nepos, Greek: ἀνεψιός). In so advanced Cultur, wie Monogamy voraussetzt, they could not have arrived mit such a scanty nomenclature of blood relationships. Erklärt with a previous system wie das Turanian, durch impoverishment.

Im Turanian system brothers u. sisters – younger u. elder u. the several terms applied to categories of persons including persons not own brothers and sisters. Im Aryan, on basis of monogamy, terms for brother u. sister now in the abstract for the first time u. inapplicable to collaterals.

Remains of a prior Turanian system still appear: So bei Hungarians brothers u. sisters classified als elder u. younger by special terms. French frère (aîné\älter, puîné u. cadet\junger); aînée u. cadette älter u. junger sister. Sanskrit: älter Bruder u. jüngerer (agrajar u. amujar), ditto für Schwester (agrajri u. amujri). If common terms once existed in Greek, Roman etc dialects für elder u. younger brother and sister, their former application to categories of persons, machte sie unanwendbar als exclusiv für own brothers and sisters.

Für grandfather no common term in the Aryan dialects. Sansk. pitameha, Gr. πάππος, lat. avus, Russ. djed, Welsh: hendad. Der term in a previous system (Turanian) was applied nicht nur zu grandfather proper, his brothers and several male cousins, sondern auch to brothers u. several male cousins of his grandmother; konnte daher nicht be made to signify a lineal grandfather and progenitor under monogamy.

Kein term für uncle u. aunt in the abstract u. no special terms für uncle u. aunt väterl. u. mütterl. Seite in den Aryan dialects. Sansk. pitroya, Gr. πάτρως, lat. patruus, Slavonic: stryc; Anglo-Saxon, Belgian, German: eam, oom, oheim for paternal uncle. In der Aryan original speech no term für Onkel mütterlicher Seite, a relationship made so conspicuous by the gens among barbarous tribes. If the previous system Turanian, necessarily a term hierfür, aber restricted to the own brothers of the mother, and her several male cousins; die Categorie schloss numbers of persons ein wovon viele could not be uncles under the monogamian system.

Dagegen erklärt sich, bei früherer Existenz des Turanian Systems (by categories) der Uebergang zu descriptive system auf Basis der Monogamy. Jede relationship under monogamy is specific; persons, under the new system, described by means of the primary terms or combinations of them as brother’s son für nephew, father’s brother für Onkel, father’s brother’s son für cousin. Dies war the original of the present system of the Aryan, Semitic u. Uralian families. The generalizations they now contain were of later origin. All the tribes, die das Malayan u. Turanian system besassen, described their kindred by the same formula, when asked in what manner one person was related to another; nicht as a system of consanguinity, but as a means of tracing relationships. Schluss daraus: nach allgemeiner Errichtung des monogamian systems unter Aryans etc, fielen diese back upon the old descriptive form, always in use under the Turanian system u. dropten diesselbst als useless u. untrue to descents.

Beweis dass das original des present system purely descriptive: Erse – typical Aryan form, Esthonian – typical Uralian – are still descriptive. Im Erse the only terms for the bloodrelationships the primary: father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter. Alle andre kindred described vermittelst dieser terms, commencing in the reverse order. z. B. brother, son of brother, son of son of brother. The Aryan system exhibits the actual relationships under monogamy, assumes that the paternity of children is known.

Später a method of description, materially different from the Celtic, was engrafted upon the new system; but without changing its radical features; introduced by the Roman civilians, angenommen durch verschiedne Aryan nations, unter denen Roman influence extended. Slavonic System has some features entirely peculiar, of Turanian origin (see: Systems of consanguinity etc p. 40).

Römische Aenderungen: unterschieden väterlichen u. mütterlichen Onkel mit besondern terms dafür, erfanden term für Grossvater als correlative of nepos. Mit diesen terms u. den primary, in connection mit suitable augments, konnten sie systematize the relationships in the lineal u. the first 5 collateral lines, which included the body of the kindred of each individual.

The Arabic system passed through processes similar to the Roman u. mit similar results.

Von Ego to tritavus, in the lineal line, 6 generations of ascendants u. von Ego to trinepos the same number of descendants, in deren description nur 4 radical terms used. Wäre es nöthig to ascend farther, tritavus would become the new starting point of description: tritavi pater bis tritavi tritavus; the 12^th ancestor of Ego in the lineal line, male; ebenso trinepotis trinepos etc.

1^st collateral line male: frater; fratris filius; fratris nepos; fratris pronepos bis fratris trinepos; wenn zum 12^t descendant fratris trinepotis trinepos. Durch diese simple Method frater is made the root of descent in this line.

Same line: female: soror, sororis filia, sororis neptis, sororis proneptis bis sororis trineptis (6^th degree) u. sororis trineptis trineptis (12^th descendant).

Beide Linien descend von pater; aber, by making the brother and sister the root of descent in the description, the line and its two branches are maintained distinct, and the relationship of each person to Ego is specialized.

2^nd collateral line: male on the father’s side: father’s brother, patruus; patrui filius, p. nepos, p. pronepos, p. trinepos, bis patrui trinepotis trinepos.

patrui filius heisst auch frater patruelis, u. in gewöhnl. Volkssprache consobrinus (cousin).

Pand. lib. XXXVIII, tit. 10 »Item fratres patrueles, sorores patrueles, id est qui quaeve ex duobus fratribus progenerantur; item consobrini consobrinae, id est qui quaeve ex duabus sororibus nascuntur (quasi consororini); item amitini amitinae, id est qui quaeve ex fratre et sorore propagantur; sed fere vulgus istos omnes communi appellatione consobrinos vocat.«

female on the father’s side: father’s sister; amita, amitae filia, a. neptis, a. trineptis, a. trineptis trineptis; special term for amitae filia amitina.

3^d collateral line: male on the father’s side[:] grandfather’s brother – patruus magnus (keine existing language has an original term for this relationship); patrui magni filius, nepos, trinepos, ending with patrui magni trinepotis trinepos.

same line female (on father’s side) commences with amita magna, great paternal aunt etc.

4^th and 5^th collateral lines on the father’s side commence respectively mit patruus major (great grandfather’s brother) u. patruus maximus (great-great-grandfather’s brother). Geht dann wie vorhin: patrui majoris filius, bis trinepos u. patrui maximi filius bis trinepos.

Female branches (on paternal side) commence respectively mit amita major u. amita maxima.

Mit Bezug auf die present monogamian family: it must advance as society advances, and change as society changes, even as it has done in the past. It is the creature of the social system … must be supposable that it is capable of still farther improvement until the equality of the sexes is attained. Should the monogamian family in the distant future fail to answer the requirements of society, assuming the continuous progress of civilization, it is impossible to predict the nature of its successor. (491, 492)

Part III. Ch. VI. Sequence of Institutions connected with the family.

I) Promiscuous intercourse. Leben in Horde; no marriage; far below the lowest savage now living; The ruder flint implements found over part of the earth’s surface, and not used by existing savages, attest extreme rudeness of man’s condition, after he had emerged from his primitive habitat, and commenced, as a fisherman, his spread over continental areas. – Primitive Savage.

The consanguine family … recognized promiscuity within defined limits, and those not the narrowest, and it points through its organism to a worse condition against which it interposed a shield.

ad V) In theAustralian male and female classes united in marriage, punaluan groups are found. Among the Hawaiians, the same group is also found, with the marriage custom it expresses. The punaluan family included the same persons found in the previous consanguine, with the exception of own brothers and sisters, who were theoretically if not in every case excluded.

ad VII Organization into gentes. Unter den Australian classes, the punaluan group is found on a broad and systematic scale; the people were also organized in gentes. Here the punaluan family older than the gens, because it rested upon classes which preceded the gentes. … The Turanian system requires both the punaluan family and the gentile organization to bring it into existence.

ad X and XI Tendency to reduce the groups of married persons to smaller proportions before the close of savagery, because the syndyasmian family became a constant phenomenon in the Lower Status of Barbarism. Custom led the more advanced savage to recognize one among a number of wives as his principal wife; this ripened in time into the custom of pairing, and in making this wife a companion and associate in the maintenance of family. … The old conjugal system, now reduced to narrower limits by the gradual disappearance of punaluan groups, still environed the advancing family, which it was to follow to the verge of civilization. … It finally disappeared into the new form of hetaerism, which still follows mankind in civilization as a dark shadow upon the family. … Syndyasmian family subsequent to the gens, which was largely instrumental in its production. From the Columbia River to the Paraguay, the Indian family was syndyasmian in general, punaluan in exceptional areas, u. monogamian perhaps in none.

ad XIV It is impossible to overestimate the influence of property in the civilization of mankind. It was the power that brought the Aryan and Semitic nations out of barbarism into civilization. … Governments and laws are instituted with primary reference to its creation, protection and enjoyment. It introduced human slavery as an instrument in its production … With the establishment of the inheritance of property in the children of its owner, came the first possibility of a strict monogamian family.

ad XV The Monogamian family: As finally constituted, this family assured the paternity of children, substituted the individual ownership of real as well as personal property for joint ownership, and an exclusive inheritance by children in the place of agnatic inheritance. Modern society reposes upon the Monogamian family.

Alle älteren Burschen – darunter Sir Henry Maine – nehmen Hebrew u. Latin types (patriarchal family) an as producing the earliest organized society … damit hängt zusammen the hypothesis of human degradation to explain the existence of barbarians u. savages. Aber inventions u. discoveries came one by one; the knowledge of a cord must precede the bow and arrow, wie gunpowder the musket, steam engine the railway and steamship; so the arts of subsistence followed each other at long intervals u. human tools passed through forms of flint and stones before they were formed of iron. Ebenso institutions

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Part IV. (The Growth of the Idea of Property)

Ch. I. The three rules of inheritance.

»Earliest ideas (!) of property« intimately associated mit procurement of subsistence, the primary need. Die objects of ownership vermehren sich natürlich in jeder »successive ethnical period« mit der multiplication der arts wovon die Subsistenzmittel abhängen. Wachsthum v. Eigenthum hält so Schritt mit Fortschritt von Erfindungen u. Entdeckungen. Jede ethnische Periode zeigt so marked advance upon its predecessors, nicht nur in der Zahl der Erfindungen, sondern ebenso in variety and amount of property which resulted therefrom. The multiplicity of the forms of property would be accompanied by the growth of certain regulations with reference to possession and inheritance. The customs upon which these rules of proprietary possession and inheritance depend, are determined by the condition and progress of social organization. The growth of property is thus closely connected with the increase of inventions and discoveries, and the improvement of social institutions which mark the several ethnical periods of human progress. (525, 526)

I) Property in the Status of Savagery.

Mankind, when ignorant of fire, without articulate language, and without artificial weapons … depended … upon the spontaneous fruits of the earth. Langsam u. fast unbemerkbar, in der Period of savagery, avanciren sie von Gebärdensprache u. unvollkommnen sounds to articulate speech; von dem club (Keule), als erster Waffe, zu spear pointed with flint, u. schliesslich zu arrow u. bow; von flint-knife u. -chisel to stone axe u. -hammer; von ozier (Korbweide) u. cane basket to the basket coated with clay, which gave a vessel for boiling food with fire; and, finally, to the art of pottery.

In the means of subsistence, they advanced from natural fruits in a restricted habitat to scale and shell fish of the sea, and finally to bread roots and game.

Ferner im status von savagery developed: Rope and string-making from filaments of bark; a species of cloth made of vegetable pulp; the tanning of skins to be used as apparel and as a covering for tents; finally the house constructed of poles and covered with bark, or made of plank split by stone wedges. Unter minor inventions zählt er neben fire-drill (während umgekehrt alles zum Feuermachen Gehörige die Hauptinvention!), moccasin (Indian word für Schuhe ohne Sohlen aus weicherm skin von deer etc), u. the snow-shoe.

Während dieser Periode grosse Vermehrung der Menschen (im Gegensatz zum primitiven Zustand) auf Basis vermehrter ConsumtionsMittel, Ausbreitung derselben über die Continents. In socialer Organization Fortschritt von consanguine horde zu tribes organized into gentes, so possessed of the germs of the principal governmental institutions.

Der entwickeltste Theil der savages, had finally organized gentile society u. developed small tribes with villages here and there … ihre rude energies and ruder arts chiefly devoted to subsistence; noch nicht the village stockade (Pfahlwerk) for defence, no farinaceous food, still cannibalism. – Der progress was immense »potentially«, trug in sich die rudiments of language, government, family, religion, house architecture, property; ditto the principal germs of the arts of life.

Property of savages inconsiderable; rude weapons, fabrics, ustensils, apparel, implements of flint, stone, and bone u. »personal ornaments« their chief items of property. Wenige Gegenstände des Besitzes, keine passion für Besitz; kein studium lucri, now such a commanding force in the human mind.

Lands owned by the tribes in common, while tenement-houses owned jointly by their occupants.

Die passion of possession nourished its nascent powers upon articles purely personal, increasing with the slow progress of inventions. Those esteemed most valuable deposited in the grave of the deceased proprietor for his continued use in spirit-land.

Inheritance: its first great rule came in with the institution of the gens, which distributed the effects of a deceased person among his gentiles. Practically they were appropriated by the nearest of kin; but the principle general that the property should remain in the gens of decedent, and be distributed among its members. ⦗Blieb in civilization. v. Greek, Roman gentes.⦘ Children inherited from their mother, but took nothing from their reputed father.

II) Property in the Lower State of Barbarism.

Hauptinventions: art of pottery, finger weaving and the art of cultivation in America which gave farinaceous food (maize) u. plants by irrigation (in Eastern hemisphere beginning as equivalent: domestication of animals), keine great inventions. Finger weaving, with warp and woof (Kette u. Einschlag) scheint dieser Periode anzugehören, ist eine der greatest inventions; but it cannot be certainly affirmed that the art was not attained in savagery.

The Iroquois u. other tribes of America in the same status manufactured belts u. burden-straps with warp and woof of excellent quality and finish; using fine twine made of filaments of elm and basswood bark. (basswood americ. Linde) Principles dieser Erfindung, which since clothed the human family, were perfectly realized; but sie were unable to extend it to the production of the woven garment.

Picture writing seems to have made its first appearance in this period; wenn früheren Ursprungs, erhielt es jetzt sehr beträchtliche Entwicklung. Die series of connected inventions in this department:

1. Gesture Language or language of personal symbols. 2) Picture writing, or idiographic symbols. 3) (verte) 3) Hieroglyphs, or conventional symbols. 4) Hieroglyphs of phonetic power, or phonetic symbols used in a syllabus. 5) Phonetic Alphabet or written sounds.

The characters on the Copan monuments apparently hieroglyphs of the grade of conventional symbols; beweisen, dass die American aborigines, who practised the 3 first forms, unabhängig auf Weg in direction of a phonetic alphabet.

Stockade as a means of village defence u. of a raw-hide shield als defence gegen arrow, which had now become a deadly missile, of the several varieties of war-club, armed with an encased stone or with a point of deer-horn, scheinen zu dieser Periode zu gehören. Jedenfalls waren sie in common use among the American Indian Tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism when discovered. Der Speer, pointed mit flint or bone kein customary weapon with the forest-tribes, though sometimes used; z. B. die Ojibwas used the lance or spear, She-mä’-gun, pointed with flint or bone. Bow u. arrow, und war-club Hauptwaffen der American Indians in diesem Status.

Einiger Fortschritt in pottery, nämlich im increased size der vessels produced u. in their ornamentation; the Creeks made earthen vessels von 2 to 10 gallons; die Iroquois ornamented their jars u. pipes mit miniature human faces attached as buttons; im ganzen blieb pottery extremely rude bis Ende dieser Periode.

Bemerkbarer Fortschritt in House architecture in size u. mode of construction.

Unter minor inventions: air-gun for bird shooting, wooden mortar for reducing maize to flour u. der stone mortar for preparing paints;

Earthen u. stone pipes, with the use of tobacco;

Bone and stone implements of higher grades, with stone hammers and mauls (mauls sind heavy wooden hammers), the handle and upper part of the stone being encased in raw hide; and moccasins u. belts ornamented with porcupine quills.

Einige dieser Erfindungen wahrscheinlich geborgt from tribes in the Middle Status; denn es war durch diesen Process constantly repeated that the more advanced tribes lifted up those below them, as fast as the latter were able to appreciate and appropriate the means of progress.

The cultivation of maize and plants gave the people unleavened bread, the Indian succotash (Speise von grünem Mais u. Bohnen) u. hominy (Maismuss); tended also to introduce a new species of property, cultivated lands or gardens. Obgleich lands owned in common by a tribe, a possessory right to cultivated land was now recognized in the individual, or in the group, which became a subject of inheritance. The group united in a common household were mostly of the same gens, and the rule of inheritance would not allow it to be detached from the kinship.

Inheritance: The property u. effects v. husband u. wife kept distinct, remained after their demise in the gens wozu sie respective gehörten. Weib u. Kinder nahmen nichts von husband u. father u. vice versa. Starb unter den Iroquois ein Mann leaving wife and children, so wurde sein Eigenthum vertheilt unter seine gentiles so dass seine Schwestern u. deren children u. his maternal uncles would receive the most of it; his brothers might receive a small portion. Starb a wife, leaving husband and children, so ihre effects geerbt von ihren Kindern, Schwestern, Mutter u. Mutterschwestern; die greater portion assigned to her children; in jedem Fall blieb property in der gens. Unter den Ojibwas die effects der Mutter vertheilt unter ihren Kindern, wenn alt genug to use them; sonst, od. in default of children, they went to her sisters, ihrer Mutter u. Mutterschwestern, to the exclusion of her brothers. Obgleich die Ojibwas had changed descent to the male line, the inheritance followed the rule which prevailed when descent was in the female line.

Die variety u. amount of property grösser als in savagery, aber noch nicht stark genug to develop a strong sentiment in relation to inheritance.

In dem distributionsmodus germ der 2^nd great rule of inheritance, which gave the property to the agnatic kindred, to the exclusion of the remaining gentiles. Agnation and agnatic kindred assume jetzt descent in the male line; Princip selbes in beiden cases, aber the persons included – different. Mit descent in the female line, agnates Personen who can trace their descent through females exclusively vom same common ancestor with the intestate; im andern Fall, who can trace their descent durch males exclusively. It is the blood connection of persons within the gens by direct descent, in a given line, vom selben common ancestor which lies at the foundation of agnatic relation.

Gegenwärtig unter advanced Indian tribes hat begun sich zu manifest repugnance gegen gentile inheritance; einige haben sie ganz über Bord geworfen u. exclusive inheritance in children substituirt. Evidence of this repugnance unter Iroquois, Creeks, Cherokees, Choctas, Menominees, Crows u. Ojibwas.

In dieser älteren Periode of barbarism sehr bedeutende Abnahme of cannibalism; wurde aufgegeben als common practice; blieb als war practice in dieser u. der Middle Period. In dieser Form ward Cannibalism gefunden in den principal tribes der U. St., Mexico, u. Central America. Erwerbung v. farinaceous food Hauptmittel to extricate mankind von this savage custom.

I) u. II), status of savagery u. Lower Status of barbarism, diese 2 ethnischen Perioden, cover mindestens ⅘ der ganzen Existenz der Menschheit auf der Erde.

Im Lower Status beginnen die higher attributes of mankind sich zu entwickeln: Persönliche Würde, Beredsamkeit, religious sensibility, rectitude, manliness u. courage jetzt common traits of character, aber auch Grausamkeit, treachery u. fanaticism. Element worship in religion, with a dim conception of personal gods, and of a Great Spirit, rude verse making, joint-tenement houses, and bread from maize belong to this period. It produced also syndyasmian family u. confederacy of tribes, organized into phratries u. gentes. Die imagination, that great faculty so largely contributing to the elevation of mankind, was now producing an unwritten literature of myths, legends u. traditions, already become powerful stimulus upon the race.

III) Property in the middle Status of Barbarism.

Die Evidence dieser Periode more completely lost than that of any other.

It was exhibited by the Village Indians of North and South America in barbaric splendour at the epoch of their discovery.

Diese Epoche eröffnet in Eastern Hemisphere mit domestication of animals, in der Western mit der Erscheinung der Village Indians, living in large joint-tenement houses of adobe (Luftziegel) brick u., in some areas, of stone laid in courses.

Cultivation of maize u. plants by irrigation, which required artificial canals, u. garden beds laid out in squares, with raised ridges to contain the water until absorbed.

Ein Theil dieser Village Indians, when discovered, had made bronze, bringing them near dem Iron smelting process.

The joint-tenement house in the nature of a fortress, hatte intermediate position zwischen der stockaded village of the Lower u. the walled city of the Upper Status. Als entdeckt no cities, in the proper sense of the word, in America.

In Kriegskunst kein grosser Fortschritt ausser in defence, durch die construction of great houses generally impregnable to Indian assault. Sie hatten erfunden: quilted mantles (escaupiles), stuffed with cotton, as a further shield against the arrow u. the two-edged sword (macuahuitl), each edge having a row of angular flint points imbedded in the wooden blade. They still used bow u. arrow, spear, war club, flint knives u. hatchets u. stone implements, obgleich they had the copper axe u. chisel, which for some reason came never into general use.

Zu maize, beans, squashes u. tobacco nun added cotton, pepper, tomato, cacao u. the care of certain fruits. A beer was made by fermenting the juice of the maguey (mexicanische Agave). Die Iroquois hatten jedoch ein ähnlich Getränk producirt durch fermenting maple (Ahornart) sap.

Durch improved methods in the ceramic art produced earthen vessels of capacity to hold several gallons, of fine texture and superior ornamentation. Bowls, pots, water jars manufactured in abundance.

Discovery and use of the native metals, erst for ornaments, finally for implements and ustensils, wie copper axe and chisel, dieser Periode angehörig. Melting dieser metals in crucible, with the probable use of blow-pipe (Blaserohr, Pustrohr) and charcoal, and casting them in moulds, the production of bronze, rude stone sculptures, the woven garment of cotton, (Hakluyt: Coll. of Voyages. III, 377), houses of dressed stone, ideographs or hieroglyphs cut on the grave-posts of deceased chiefs, the calendar for measuring time, the solstitial stone for marking the seasons, cyclopean walls, the domestication of the llama, of a species of dog, of the turkey and other fowls belong to same period in America.

A priesthood, organized in a hierarchy, distinguished by a costume; personal gods with idols to represent them, u. human sacrifices erscheinen zuerst in dieser Periode.

Two large Indian pueblos, Mexico u. Cusco jetzt, containing über 20,000 inhabitants, number unknown in the previous period.

Aristocratic element in society, in feeble forms, among the chiefs, civil and military, through increased numbers under the same government, and the growing complexity of affairs.

Eastern hemisphere: we find its native tribes in dieser Periode mit domestic animals, yielding them a milk and meat subsistence, aber wahrscheinlich ohne horticultural u. farinaceous food. Wild horse, cow, sheep, ass, sow; ihre Zähmung gab grossen Impuls; produced in herds u. flocks they become source of permanent progress. Der effect wurde erst allgemein, sobald pastoral life established for the creation u. maintenance of flocks. Europa, als hauptsächlich Wald area, unadapted to the pastoral state; aber die grass plains of high Asia u. upon the Euphrates, the Tigris u. other rivers of Asia, natural homes der pastoral tribes. Thither they would naturally tend; there the remote Aryan ancestors found confronting like pastoral Semitic tribes.

Cultur v. cereals u. plants muss vorhergegangen sein ihrer migration von den grass plains in die Forestareas v. Westasien u. Europa. Diese Cultur forced upon them by the necessities of the domestic animals now incorporated into their plan of life. (Dies vielleicht nicht Fall bei den Celts)

Woven fabrics of flax and wool u. bronze implements u. weapons erscheinen in dieser Period auch in der oestlichen Hemisphäre.

To cross the barrier into the Upper Status of barbarism unentbehrlich metallic tools able to hold an edge and point; dazu nöthig Invention des process of Iron smelting.

Eigenthum: Grosser Zuwachs v. personal property u. einige changes in the relations of persons to land. Das territorial domain gehörte noch der Tribus in common; aber a portion now set apart für support of the government, andrer für religious uses, u. noch wichtigere portion – das, wovon Volk seine Subsistenz bezog, divided unter the several gentes, or communities of persons who resided in the same pueblo. Niemand owned lands or houses in his own right mit Macht zu verkaufen u. übermachen in fee simple, wem er wollte. Individual ownership of houses and lands excluded by gemeinschaftliches Eigenthum on lands durch gentes od. communities of persons, joint-tenement houses u. mode of occupation by related families.

Rev. Sam. Gorman, Missionär unter den Laguna Pueblo Indians, in address to the Historical Society of New Mexico says:

„the right of property belongs to the female part of the family, and descends in that line from mother to daughter. Their land is held in common, […] but after a person cultivates a lot he has personal claim to it, which he can sell to one of the community … Their women, generally, have control of the granary, are more provident than their Spanish neighbours about the future. Ordinarily they try to have a year’s provision on hand. It is only when two years of scarcity succeed each other, that Pueblos, as a community, suffer hunger.[“] Morgan p. 536, Note.

Possessory rights, existing in individuals or families, inalienable ausser durch inheritance to his or her gentile heirs.

The Moqui Village Indians, ausser 7 large pueblos u. gardens, haben jetzt flocks of sheep, horses and mules u. considerable other personal property; manufacture earthen vessels of many sizes u. excellent quality, u. woolen blankets in looms u. mit yarn of their own production. Major J. W. Powell noticed the following case showing that dort still the husband acquires no rights over the property of the wife, or over the children of the marriage. A Zunian married an Oraybe woman, and had by her 3 children; er wohnte mit ihnen zu Oraybe, bis sie †. The relatives of his deceased wife ergriffen Besitz ihrer Kinder u. household property leaving [to] him his horse, clothing u. weapons, mit certain blankets, die ihm gehörten, nicht die seiner Frau. Er left the Pueblo mit Powell um nach Santa Fé zu gehn u. dann to return to his own people at Zuñi. – Women as well as men, not unlikely, had a possessory right to such rooms and sections of the pueblo houses as they occupied u. überliessen sie ihren next of kin, under certain regulations.

The Spaniards (writers) have left the land tenure of the southern tribes in inextricable confusion. In unveräusserlichem common land, belonging to a community of persons sahn sie feudal estate, im chief the feudal lord, in people his vassals; sie sahen, dass das land owned in common; nicht die community ihrer owners selbst – die gens od. division of a gens.

Descent in the female line remained still in some of the tribes of Mexico u. Central America, während im andern, probably larger Theil, übergegangen in a descent in the male line; letztres caused durch den influence of property. Unter den Mayas descent was in male line, dagegen schwer zu bestimmen in welcher line bei Aztecs, Tezcucans, Tlacopans u. Tlascalans.

Unter den Village Indians probable descent in the male line with remains of the Archaic rule wie in the case of the office of Teuctli. Unter ihnen zu erwarten the second grand rule of inheritance which distributed the property among the agnatic kindred. With descent in the male line children of a deceased person at the head of the Agnates, so dass sie die greater portion (unter den Agnates) erhielten, aber waren nicht exclusive heirs (mit Ausschluß der andern Agnaten[)]. Die Americans never entered last (Upper) Period of Barbarism.

Ch. II (part IV) The three rules of inheritance continued.

Upper Period of Barbarism commenced in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Process of smelting Iron; trotz Bronze progress arrested durch want of a metal of sufficient strength and hardness for mechanical purposes; found zuerst in iron. Von da Fortschritt rapider.

IV) Property in the Upper Status of Barbarism.

Ende dieser Periode property in masses verallgemeinert – consisting in many kinds, held by individual ownership – durch settled agriculture, manufactures, local trade, foreign commerce; aber:

Old common tenure of lands had not given place, ausser in part, to Separateigenthum.

In diesem Status entsprang Slavery; it stands directly connected with the production of property. Out of it (slavery) came the patriarchal family of the Hebrew type u. the similar family der Latin tribes under paternal power, wie auch a modified form of the same family unter den Grecian tribes.

Hence, namentlich aber von increased abundance of subsistence, through field agriculture, nations began to develop, zählten viele 1000^nds unter one government, wo früher nur a few 1000^nds. Struggle für die possession der most desirable territories intensified durch die localization of tribes in fixed areas, u. in fortified cities, mit dem increase der Volkszahl. Advanced Kriegskunst u. vermehrte die rewards of prowess. Diese changes indicate the approach of civilization.

Ersten Gesetze der Griechen, Römer, Hebräer – nach Beginn der Civilization – verwandelten chiefly nur in legal enactments the results die ihre previous experience verkörpert hatte in usages u. customs.

Gegen Ende der Upper Period of Barbarism Tendenz zu 2 Formen von Ownership, nämlich, durch Staat u. durch Individuen. Lands, unter den Griechen, still held, einige durch die tribes in common, andre durch die phratry in common für religious uses, andre durch die gens in common, aber die bulk der lands had fallen under individual ownership in severalty. Zur Zeit Solon’s war Athenian society noch gentil, lands in general held durch individuals who had learnt to mortgage them. (Plut. in Solon c. XV. »Σεμνύνεται γὰρ Σόλων ἐν τούτοις, ὅτι τῆς τε προϋποκειμένης (verpfändeten) γῆς ⦗ὅρους = die Marken, die der Schuldner bei Haus od. Acker setzen musste, worauf er Geld entlehnt hatte, mit einer Schrift, welche seinen Namen neben der Summe angab⦘

ὅρους ἀνεῖλε πολλαχῆ πεπηγότας· πρόσθεν δὲ δουλεύουσα, νῦν ἐλεύθερα.«)

The Roman tribes, from their first establishment, had a public domain, Ager romanus; while lands were held by the curia for religious uses, by the gens, u. by individuals in severalty. Nachdem diese social corporations ausgestorben, the lands held by them in common gradually became private property.

Diese several forms of ownership show dass die älteste land tenure was die in common durch den tribe; nach Beginn ihrer Cultivation, ein Theil der tribe lands divided unter die gentes, jede wovon held their portion in common; diesem folgten im Lauf der Zeit allotments to individuals u. diese allotments finally ripened into individual ownership in severalty.

Personal property, generally, was subject to individual ownership.

Monogamian family erschien in Upper Status of barbarism herausentwickelt aus Syndyasmian family; hing intimately zus. mit increase of property u. usages in respect to its inheritance. Descent changed to the male line; aber alles Eigenthum, real u. personal, blieb, wie seit time immemorial, hereditary in gens.

Ilias In der Ilias (V, 90) mentioned fences around cultivated fields, (IX, 577) an enclosure of 50 acres (πεντηκοντόγυος) half for vines, remainder for tillage, (XIV, 121) Tydeus lives in a mansion rich in resources, and had corn producing fields in abundance.

(Morgan irrt sich, wenn er glaubt, das blosse fencing beweise Privatgrundeigenthum) Breeds of horses already distinguished for particular excellence. (V, 266, 267) „sheep of a rich man standing countless in the fold.“ (IV, 433)

Coined money unknown, daher trade noch by barter, wie in folgenden lines:

»Ἔνθεν ἄρ’ οἰνίζοντο (οἰνίζω: in medium Wein kaufen) κάρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοὶ,
Ἄλλοι μὲν χαλκῷ (aere), ἄλλοι δ’ αἴθωνι (splendido) σιδήρῳ,
Ἄλλοι δὲ ῥινοῖς (pellibus), ἄλλοι δ’ αὐτοῖσι βόεσσιν,
ἄλλοι δ’ ἀνδραπόδεσσι.« (Il. l. VII v. 472–75)

         Erz
hier     Eisen
         Felle     = wine.   (III Aequivalentform   ; u. wine = Erz od. Eisen od. Felle od. Ochsen
         Sklaven              wo wine = Geld.)
                             (II Equivalentform)

Gold in bars named as passing by weight and estimated by talents. (Il. XII, 274, v. Morgan citirt; steht da nicht.) Mentioned: manufactured articles of gold, silver, brass and iron, textile fabrics of linen and woolen in many forms, houses, palaces etc.

Inheritance: Nach Erreichung so grosser Quantität in Upper Status of Barbarism v. houses u. lands, flocks u. herds, u. exchangeable commodities and held by individual ownership question of inheritance pressed bis right den facts entsprach. Die domestic animals a possession of greater value than alle früheren Arten property zusammen; served for food, exchangeable for commodities, usable for redeeming decaptives, for paying fines, and in religious sacrifices; capable of indefinite multiplication in numbers – their possession revealed to the human mind the first conception of wealth. Folgte in course of time the systematical cultivation of the earth, tending to identify the family mit dem soil, and render it a property-making organization; fand bald expression in Latin, Grecian, Hebrew tribes, in the patriarchal family, involving slaves u. servants. Labor of father and children became more and more incorporated with the land, the production of domestic animals, and the creation of merchandise, it tended to individualize the family u. suggested the superior claims of children to the inheritance of the property they had assisted in creating. Vor der Landkultur flocks u. herds fiel naturally under the joint ownership of persons united in a group, on a basis of kin, for subsistence. Agnatic inheritance was apt to assert itself in this condition. Aber sobald land had become the subject of property, and allotments to individuals had resulted in individual ownership, was sure to supervene upon agnatic inheritance: Third great rule of inheritance, giving property to the children of the deceased owner.

When field culture bewiesen hatte, dass die ganze Oberfläche der Erde could be made the subject of property owned by individuals in severalty u. Familienhaupt became the natural center of accumulation, the new property career of mankind inaugurated; fully done before the close of the Later Period of Barbarism; übte einen grossen Einfluss auf human mind, rief new elements of character wach; property became tremendous passion im barbarian des heroic age. (»booty and beauty«) Dagegen nicht haltbar archaic u. later usages. ⦗Herr Loria! voilà the working of passion!⦘ Monogamy had assured the paternity of children u. maintained u. asserted their exclusive right to inherit the property of their deceased fathers.

Germans, when discovered, in Upper Status of Barbarism, used iron, in limited quantities; had flocks and herds; cultivated cereals; manufactured coarse textile fabrics of linen and woolen, had not attained [to] the idea of individual ownership in lands. Folgt daher: individual property in land unknown in Asia u. Europe in Middle Period of Barbarism, came in in Upper Period.

Bei Hebrew tribes individual ownership in lands existed before the commencement of their civilization. They came out of barbarism, wie die Aryan tribes, mit possession of domestic animals u. cereals, iron u. brass, gold and silver, fictile wares u. textile fabrics. Aber ihre knowledge of field agriculture limited in Zeit Abrahams. Nach Reconstruction der Hebrew Society, nach dem Exodus, on basis of consanguine tribes, to which on reaching Palestine territorial areas were assigned, shows that civilization found them under gentile institutions, below a knowledge of political society. Inheritance was strictly in the phratry u. probably in the gens „the house of the father“ … After children had acquired an exclusive inheritance, daughters succeeded in default of sons; marriage would then transfer their own property from their own gens to that of their husband, unless some restraint, in the case of heiresses, was put on the right. Presumptively u. naturally marriage within the gens prohibited; question came before Moses as a question of Hebrew inheritance, vor Solon as a question of Athenian inheritance, the gens claiming a paramount right to its retention within its membership; u. beide entschieden in demselben Sinn. Same question must have turned up in Rome u. in part met by the rule that a marriage of a female worked a diminutio capitis u. with it a forfeiture of agnatic rights.

Andre question involved in this issue: war marriage to be restricted by the rule forbidding it within the gens, or become free, the degree, and not the fact of kin, being the measure of limitation ! Letztre Lösung siegte.

Zelophehad starb, liess Töchter, keine Söhne u. die inheritance given to the former. Später diese Töchter about to marry ausserhalb the tribe of Joseph, wozu sie belonged; the members of the tribe objected to such a transfer of property, brachten Sache vor Moses.

Diese Burschen präsentiren die Sache so:

„If they be married to any of the sons of the other tribes of the children of Israel, then shall the inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.“ (Numbers, XXXVI, III) Mouses antwortet:

„The tribe of the sons of Joseph has spoken well. This is the thing which the Lord doth command concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying, „Let them marry to whom they think best: only to the family of the tribe of their father shall they marry. So shall not the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe: for every one of the children of Israel shall keep himself to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers. And every daughter that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every one the inheritance of his fathers.“ (Numbers, XXXVI, 5–9) They were required to marry into their own phratry, not necessarily into their own gens. The daughters of Zelophehad were „married to their father’s brother’s sons“ (Numbers XXXVI, 11) who were not only members of their own phratry, but also of their own gens; they were also their next agnates.

Früher hatte Moses etablirt die rule of inheritance u. reversion thus:

„And thou shalt speak to the children of Israel, saying, If a man die and have no son, then you shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daughters. And if he have no daughter, then you shall give his inheritance unto his brothers. And if he have no brethren, then you shall give his inheritance unto his father’s brethren. And if his father have no brethren, then you shall give it unto his kinsman, that is next to him of his family, and he shall possess it.“ (Numbers, XXVII, 8–11)

Hier heirs: 1) the children; aber scheint that the sons took the property subject to the obligation of maintaining the daughters. Wir finden elsewhere that the eldest son had a double portion.

2. the agnates in their order of nearness: a) the brethren of the deceased, in default of children des Verstorbnen; u., wenn er keine brethren hatte b) the brethren of the father of the deceased.

3. the gentiles, also in the order of nearness „the kinsman that is next to him of his family“. The „family of the tribe“ is the analogue of the phratry; also property, in default of children u. agnates, went to the nearest phrator des defunct owner, – diese Erbfolge excludes cognates von inheritance; a phrator, more distant than a father’s brother, would inherit in preference to the children of a sister of the deceased. Descent in the male line and the property must be hereditary in the gens. The father did not inherit from his son, nor the grandfather from his grandson. Hierin u. fast in allem übrigen Mosaic Law agrees mit dem Law of Twelve Tables.

Später the Levitical law established marriage upon a new basis, independent of gentile law; verbot Ehe innerhalb gewisser Grade v. consanguinity u. affinity, declared it free beyond these degrees; dies entwurzelte gentile usages mit Bezug auf Ehe bei den Hebräern, wurde später the rule of Christian nations.

Solon’s Gesetze über inheritances substantiell selben wie die von Mouses. Beweist, dass die früheren usages, customs, institutions der Hebräer u. Griechen dieselben in Bezug auf Eigenthum. In Solon’s Zeit, 3^d great rule of inheritance fully established unter Atheniensern; sons took the estates ihres deceased father mit obligation of maintaining the daughters u. apportioning them suitably on their marriage. Wenn no sons, erbten die Töchter equally; dadurch created heiresses (ἐπικλήρες) by investing women mit estates; Solon enacted that the heiress should marry her nearest male agnate, although they belonged to the same gens, and Ehe unter ihnen früher verboten durch usage. Instances occurred wo der nächste Agnat, obgleich verheirathet, put away his wife, in order to marry the heiress, and thus gain the estate. Protomachus im Eubulides des Demosthenes Beispiel. (Demost. ag ain st Eubulides, 41) Wenn keine children, estates to the agnates, in their default to the gentiles des defunct. Property was retained within the gens as inflexibly among the Athenians wie unter Hebrews u. Romans. Solon turned into law, was vorher established usage.

Unter Solon erscheinen testamentary dispositions (established ? by him); Plutarch sagt es sei früher nicht erlaubt gewesen. (Romulus: 754–717 a.C., 1–37 der Stadt Rom; Solon Gesetzgeber Athen’s about 594 a.C.)

»Εὐδοκίμησε δὲ κἀν τῷ περὶ διαθηκῶν νόμῳ · πρότερον γὰρ οὐκ ἐξῆν, ἀλλ’ ἐν τῷ γένει τοῦ τεθνηκότος ἔδει τὰ χρήματα καὶ τὸν οἶκον καταμένειν, ὁ δ’ ᾧ βούλεταί τις ἐπιτρέψας, εἰ μὴ παῖδες εἶεν αὐτῷ, δοῦναι τὰ αὑτοῦ, φιλίαν τε συγγενείας ἐτίμησε μᾶλλον καὶ χάριν ἀνάγκης, καὶ τὰ χρήματα κτήματα τῶν ἐχόντων ἐποίησεν.« (Plut. Vita Solon. c. 21)

This law recognized the absolute individual ownership of property by the person while living, to which jetzt added testamentar. Verfügung, when no children da; aber das gentile right remained paramount so long [as] children existed to represent him in the gens. At all events muss die custom früher dagewesen sein (testamentliche), da Solon in positive law – customary law verwandelte.

Roman Law of 12 tables, first promulgated 449 a. Ch.; durch sie anerkannt:

Intestaterbrecht: »Intestatorum hereditates lege XII tabularum primum ad suos heredes pertinent.« (Gajus, inst., III, 1) (mit den children war wife des defunct coheiress) »Si nullus sit suorum heredum, tunc hereditas pertinet ex eadem lege XII tabularum ad agnatos.« (Gaj. III, 9) »Si nullus agnatus sit, eadem lex XII tabularum gentiles ad hereditatem vocat.« (ib. III, 17) Seems a reasonable inference dass hereditas wirklich grade in der umgekehrten Ordnung primitiv bei den Römern existirt hatte als in den 12 Tafeln; inheritance by gentes vor der der Agnaten; die der Agnaten vor der exclusiven der Kinder.

In der later Period of Barbarism kam Aristocratie auf, durch Entwicklung der individuality of persons, increase of wealth now possessed by individuals in masses; slavery, by permanently degrading a portion of the people, tended to establish contrasts of condition unknown in the previous ethnical periods; dazu, with property and official position – schuf sentiment of aristocracy, antagonistisch den democratical principles fostered by the gentes.

Im Upper Status of Barbarism, the office of chief in its different grades, originally hereditary in the gens and elective among its members, passed, very likely, unter Grecian u. Roman tribes von father to son as a rule. Aber keine evidence, dass so by hereditary right.

Die blosse possession jedoch der offices of archon, phylo-basileus or βασιλεύς unter den Griechen, u. v. princeps u. rex unter den Römern, hatte Tendenz to strengthen in their families the sentiment of aristocracy. Obgleich es permanent existence gewann, nicht stark genug to change essentially the democratic constitution of the early governments of these tribes.

Heutzutag, wo property so immense u. seine forms so diversified, it has become, on the part of the people, an unmanageable power. »The human mind stands bewildered in the presence of its own creation. The time will come, nevertheless, when human intelligence will rise to the mastery over property … A mere property career is not the final destiny of mankind. The time which has passed away since civilization began is but a fragment (u. zwar sehr kleines) of the past duration of man’s existence; and but a fragment of the ages yet to come. The dissolution of society bids fair to become the termination of a career of which property is the end and aim; because such a career contains the elements of self-destruction … It (a higher plan of society) will be a revival, in a higher form, of the liberty, equality and fraternity of the ancient gentes.« (552)

»With one principle of intelligence and one physical form, in virtue of a common origin, the results of human experience have been substantially the same in all times and areas in the same ethnical status.« (552)

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Part II (Growth of the Idea of Government.)

Ch. I. Organization of Society upon the Basis of sex.

Organization into male and female classes (also organization upon the basis of sex) now found in full vitality among the Australian aborigines. Low down in savagery community of husbands and women, within prescribed lines, was the central principle of the social system: the marital rights (jura conjugialia) ⦗Romans distinguish: connubium, related to marriage as a civil institution, u. conjugium, the mere physical union⦘ established in the group. ⦗Emancipation von diesen »rights« etc slowly accomplished durch movements resulting in unconscious reformations; »worked out unconsciously through natural selection«.⦘

In Darling River District – north of Sydney – die nachfolgende organization into classes on the basis of sex and the inchoate organization into gentes on the basis of kin unter den Australian aborigines speaking the Kamilaroi language. Wide spread selbiges unter other Australian tribes; evident from internal considerations, that the male u. female classes older than the gentes, die, among the Kamilaroi, are in process of overthrowing the classes. The class in its male and female branches is the unit of the social system u. the central position, während die gentes inchoate u. advancing to completeness through encroachments upon the former. Selbe Organization upon sex not yet been found under savage tribes out of Australia, weil diese insular savages slowly developing in their secluded habitat, die most archaic (organized) form am längsten erhalten haben.

The Kamilaroi divided in 6 gentes, standing with relation to marriage in 2 divisions:

Ursprünglich die ersten 3 gentes not allowed to intermarriage with each [other], weil sie waren subdivisions of one original gens, durften aber marry into either of the other gentes u. vice versa. Dies nun modified unter den Kamilaroi, aber nicht so weit dass marriage erlaubt mit allen gentes ausser dem gens des individual. Absolute prohibition for males or females to marry into their own gens. Descent in female line, which assigns children to the line of their mother. These features of archaic form of gens.

Aber ausserdem existirt weitere u. ältere division des people in 8 classes, 4 exclusively of males u. 4 exclusively of females. It is accompanied with a regulation in respect to marriage and descent which [obstructs] the gens (zeigt, dass deren organization later…) Marriage is restricted to a portion of the males of one gens with a portion of the females of another gens, während in entwickelter gentile organization members of each gens allowed to marry persons of the opposite sex in all the gentes except their own.

Die Klassen sind:

Alle Glieder, je einer der 4 männlichen Klassen, sind, of whatever gens they may be, Brüder v. einander, so alle Ippais Brüder etc, weil alle supposed descended from a common female ancestor. Ebenso alle Glieder je einer der 4 weiblichen Klassen Schwestern v. einander for same reason (descent from common mother), to whatever gens they may belong.

Ferner all Ippais u. Ippatas Brüder u. Schwestern von einander, ob sie nun children der same mother or collateral consanguinei, ebenso verhält es sich für die folgenden mit denselben numbers bezeichneten Klassen. If a Kumbo u. Buta meet, die sich nie vorher gesehn, begrüssen sie sich als Bruder u. Schwester. Die Kamilaroi sind also organized in 4 great primary groups of brothers and sisters, each group being composed of a male and female branch, but intermingled over the areas of their occupation. The classes embody the germ of gens, so far as z. B. Ippai u. Ippata in fact a single class in 2 branches bilden u. not can intermarry with each other; aber keine realisirte Gens, weil sie fall unter 2 names (wie Ippai u. Ippata), each of which is integral for certain purposes, u. weil their children take different names from their own.

Die classes stand to each other in a different order with respect to right of marriage or rather cohabitation (since brothers and sisters are not allowed to intermarry), viz. so:

Each male in the selection of a wife so limited to ¼ of all the Kamilaroi wives. Theoretisch jede Kapota the wife of every Ippai. Rev. Fison quotes von a letter of Mr. T. E. Lance (der lange in Australien gelebt): „if a Kubbi meets a stranger Ippata, they address each other as Goleer = Spouse … A Kubbi thus meeting an Ippata, even though she were of another tribe, would treat her as his wife, and his right to do so would be recognized by her tribe.“

Under this conjugal system ¼ aller males united in marriage mit ¼ aller females of the Kamilaroi tribes.

Während die Kinder blieben in gens ihrer Mutter, gingen sie über in eine andre Klasse, in selber gens, different from that of either parent.

Folgt man der female line, so Kapota (4) ist die Mutter of Mata (3) u. Mata (5) ist hinwiederum die Mutter of Kapota; ebenso Buta (2) Mutter von Ippata (1) u. hinwiederum Ippata (1) die Mutter von Buta (2). Selbes mit male class; da aber descent in the female line, leiten sich die Kamilaroi tribes selbst ab von 2 supposed female ancestors, which laid the foundation for 2 original gentes. – By tracing the descents still further found that the blood of each class passes through all classes.

Obgleich jedes Individuum einen der oben erwähnten class names führt, so daneben the single personal name common among savages as well as barbarous tribes.

The gentile organization supervened naturally upon the classes as a higher organization, by simply enfolding them unchanged, encroaches then upon them.

The classes are in pairs von brothers u. sisters derived from each other u. die gentes, vermittelst der classes, sind auch in pairs wie folgt:

The connection of children with a particular gens is proven by the law of marriage. So Iguana-Mata must marry Kumbo; her children are Kubbi u. Kapota, u. nothwendig Iguana in gens, because descent in the female line. Iguana-Kapota must marry Ippai, her children are Murri u. Mata u. ditto Iguana in gens. So Emu-Ippata must marry Kubbi, her children are Kumbo u. Buta u. of the Emu gens. So die gens maintained by keeping in its membership the children of all its female members. Ebenso mit den remaining gentes. Each gens is made up theoretically of 2 supposed female ancestors, and contains 4 of the 8 classes. Wahrscheinlich ursprünglich nur 2 male u. 2 female classes, set opposite to each other in respect to the right of marriage; and that the 4 afterward subdivided into 8. The classes evidently as an anterior organization nachher arranged within the gentes, not formed by the subdivision of the gentes.

Da die Iguana, Kangaroo u. Opossum gentes are counterparts to each other in the classes they contain, so subdivisions of an original gens; ebenso andrerseits Emu, Bandicoot u. Blacksnake; so 2 original gentes mit dem right in each to marry into the other, but not in itself. Dies confirmed durch das fact, dass 1), 3), 5) originally nicht intermarry durften unter einander, ebensowenig wie 2), 4), 6). When the three were one gens intermarriage unter ihnen verboten; dies followed the subdivisions, because they were of the same descent, although under different gentile names. Dasselbe exact gefunden bei den Seneca-Iroquois.

Da marriage restricted to particular classes, when there were but 2 gentes, one half of all the females of one were the wives of one half of all the males of the other. After their subdivision into 6 the benefit of marrying out of the gens was neutralized by the presence of the classes mit ihren restrictions; hence continuous in-and-in marriages, beyond the immediate degree of brother and sister.

z. B. descents of Ippai u. Kapota giving to each intermediate pair 2 children, a male and a female, dann:

1. Ippai marries Kapota; their children Murri u. Mata. Die letztern 2 können nicht einander heirathen.

2. Murri marries Buta … their children: Ippai u. Ippata; Mata marries Kumbo … their children: Kubbi u. Kapota;

3. Ippai marries his cousin Kapota u. Kubbi marries his cousin Ippata; their children are respectively Murri u. Mata u. Kumbo u. Buta; von diesen die Murris marry the Butas, second cousins, etc. In this condition the classes not only intermarry constantly, but are compelled to do so through this organization upon sex. – The organization into classes seems to have been directed to the single object of breaking up the intermarriage of brothers and sisters. – Innovation: allowing each triad of gentes to intermarry with each other, to a limited extent; and secondly, to marry into classes, not before permitted. So Iguana-Murri can now marry Mata in the Kangaroo gens, his collateral sister etc. Each class of males in each triad of gentes seems now to be allowed one additional class of females in the 2 remaining gentes of the same triad, from which they were before excluded.

Wherever the middle or lower statum of savagery is uncovered, marriages of entire groups under usages defining the groups, have been discovered … the necessities of their condition would set a practical limit to the size of the group living together under this custom.

»Cases of physical and mental deterioration in tribes and nations must be admitted, for reasons which are known, but they never interrupted the general progress of mankind … The arts by which savages maintain their lives are remarkably persistent. They are never lost until superseded by others higher in degree. By the practice of these arts, and the experience gained through social organizations, mankind have advanced under a necessary law of development, although their progress may have been substantially imperceptible for centuries … tribes and nations have perished through the disruption of their ethnic life.« (p. 60) Among other tribes (non-Australian) the gens seems to have advanced in proportion to the curtailment of the conjugal system.

»We have the same brain, perpetuated by reproduction, which worked in the skulls of barbarians and savages in by-gone ages; and it has come down to us ladened and saturated with the thoughts, aspirations and passions, with which it was busied through the intermediate periods. It is the same brain grown older and larger with the experiences of the ages … Outcrops of barbarism (wie z. B. Mormonism) are so many revelations of its ancient proclivities … a species of mental atavism.« (61)

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P. II Ch. II The Iroquois Gens.

Aelteste organization – social, founded upon gentes, phratries, tribes; so gentile society created, wo government dealt with persons through their relations to a gens or tribe. These relations purely personal. Kömmt nachher a political organization, founded upon territory u. property; hier government deals with persons through their relations to territory, wie z. B. the township, the county, and the state. (62)

Gentile Organization found in Asia, Europe, Africa, America, Australia; dauert bis political society, die erst mit der Civilization eintritt. Irish Sept, Scottish Clan, die phrara der Albanians, ganas des Sanscrit etc selbes was American Indian gens.

Gens, γένος u. ganas (lat. gr. Sansk.) bedeuten alike kin; enthalten dasselbe Element as gigno, γίγνομαι, ganamai (beget alle 3); implying an immediate common descent of the members of a gens. A gens daher a body of consanguinei. Descended from the same common ancestor, distinguished by a gentile name, and bound together by affinities of blood. It includes a moiety only of such descendants; wo descent in female line, wie überall in archaic period, gens zusammengesetzt of a supposed female ancestor and her children, with the children of her female descendants, through females, in perpetuity; umgekehrt, wo descent in the male line, into which the female line was changed after the appearance of property in masses. Der moderne Familienname ist selbst a survival of the gentile name, with descent in the male line. The modern family, as expressed by its name, is an unorganized gens; with the bond of kin broken, and its members as widely dispersed as the family name is found. Final form of gens enthält two changes: 1) change from female to male line of descent; 2) change of the inheritance of the property of a deceased member from his gentiles to his agnatic kindred u. finally to his children.

Gens in its archaic form now exists among the American aborigines.

Wo gentile institutions prevailed – and prior to the establishment of political society – we find peoples or nations in gentile societies, and nothing beyond. »The state did not exist.« (p. 67) As the gens, the unit of organization, was essentially democratical, so necessarily the phratry composed of gentes, the tribe composed of phratries, and the gentile society formed by the confederation or (was höhere Form) coalescing of tribes. ⦗wie die 3 röm. in Rom, the 4 tribes of the Athenians in Attica, the 3 Dorian tribes in Sparta, all of them on some common territory⦘

In der archaic form der gens die children einer Frau gehören zu ihrer gens; ebenso die children ihrer Töchter, Grosstöchter etc aber die children ihrer Söhne, deren Grosssöhne etc belong to other gentes, nämlich denen ihrer Mütter. In the Middle Status of Barbarism (mit Syndyasmian family) began die Indian tribes to change the female line to the male; selbes im Upper Status of Barbarism bei Greek tribes (except the Lycians), u. den Italian tribes (except the Etruskans).

Intermarriage in Gens prohibited. Die Gensinstitution beginnt nothwendig mit 2 gentes; the males and females of one gens marrying the females and males of the other; the children, following the gentes of their respective mothers, would be divided between them. Resting on the bond of kin as its cohesive principle, gens verleiht jedem individual member that personal protection which no other existing power could give.

Gentes of the Iroquois taken as standard exemplification in der Ganowánian family. When discovered the Iroquois in the lower status of barbarism; manufactured nets twine and rope from filaments of bark; wove belts and burden straps, with warp and woof, vom selben Material; machten earthern vessels u. pipes von clay mixed with siliceous materials u. hardened by fire, some of them ornamented mit rude medallions; cultivated maize, beans, squashes u. tobacco in garden beds, made unleavened bread von pounded maize which they boiled in earthern vessels (these loaves or cakes about 6 inches in diameter u. an inch thick); tanned skins into leather with which they manufactured kilts, leggins u. moccasins; used bow and arrow and warclub als Hauptwaffen; used flint, stone u. bone implements, wore skin garments, were expert hunters u. fishermen. Constructed long joint-tenement houses large enough to accommodate 5, 10, 20 families u. each household practised communism in living; were unacquainted mit the use of stone or adobe-brick in house architecture u. mit dem use der native metals. In mental capacity u. general advancement waren they der representative branch der Indian family north of New Mexico. Military „their career was simply terrific. They were the scourge of God upon the aborigines of the Continent.“

In lapse of time number u. names der respective gentes have slightly varied, their largest number being 8.

Die Changes zeigen, dass certain gentes in some of the tribes became extinct u. dass andre formed by segmentation of overfull gentes.

Das jus gentilicium besteht [in]:

1. The right der gens of electing its sachem und chiefs.

Fast bei allen American Indian tribes 2 grades of chiefs, sachem u. common chiefs; von diesen 2 primary grades all other grades were varieties; elected in each gens from among its members, a son could not be elected to succeed his father, wo descent in the female line, weil er belonged to a different gens. Office of Sachem hereditary in the gens, insofern it was filled so oft als a vacancy occurred; office of chief non-hereditary, weil bestowed in reward of personal merit u. died with the individual. Duties of Sachem confined to peace, konnte nicht in Krieg ziehn as a Sachem. The chiefs, raised to office for personal bravery, wisdom in affairs, or for eloquence in council, gewöhnlich die superior class in ability, aber nicht in authority over the gens. The relation des Sachem was primarily to the Gens, wovon er the official head; die des Chief primarily to the tribe, – von dessen council er wie der Sachem members.

The office of Sachem älter als gens, gehört ebenso zu punaluan group or even the anterior horde. In the gens the duties of this office paternal; in the gens elective among its male members. Dem Indian system of consanguinity entsprechend office of Sachem passed von brother zu brother, or from uncle to nephew u. sehr selten von grandfather to grandson. The choice, by free suffrage of both males and females of adult ages, fiel gewöhnlich auf einen Bruder des deceased Sachem od. einen der Söhne einer Schwester; sein eigner Bruder od. der Sohn einer eignen Schwester meist preferred. Zwischen several brothers, own or collateral, on the one hand u. den sons of several sisters, own or collateral, on the other, no priority of right, da alle male members der gens equally eligible.

Hatte die gens einen gewählt (Sachem) (unter den Seneca-Iroquois z. B.), so noch erfordert assent der 7 remaining gentes. These met for the purpose by phratries; wenn sie die Wahl to confirm verweigerten, musste die gens neu wählen; wurde er accepted, so election complete; aber der neue Sachem musste still »be raised up« (i.e. invested with his office), durch a council of the confederacy, before he could enter upon his duty; it was their method of conferring the imperium.

Der Sachem of a gens was ex officio a member of the council of the tribe, and of the higher council of the confederacy. Selbe Method of election u. confirmation for the office of a chief; aber a general council never convened to raise up chiefs below the grade of a sachem; they awaited the time when sachems were elected.

Chiefs in each gens usually proportioned to the number of its members; unter den Seneca-Iroquois 1 chief for about every 50 persons; der Seneca nun in New York einige 3000, haben 8 Sachems u. about 60 chiefs; the proportionate number jetzt grösser als früher. Anzahl der gentes in a tribe meist entsprechend der Bevölkerungszahl des tribe; die Zahl der gentes varies in different tribes von 3 unter Delawares u. Munsees to über 20 unter Ojibwas u. Creeks; 6, 8, 10 waren gewöhnliche Anzahlen.

2. Recht Sachems u. Chiefs abzusetzen.

Dies Recht reserved by the members of the gens; office nominally »for life«, tenure practically »during good behaviour«. Die installation eines Sachem hiess: „putting on the horns“, seine Absetzung „taking off the horns“. Sobald ein Sachem od. chief in due form abgesetzt durch gens, war er von nun Privatperson. Council of the tribe konnte auch Sachems u. chiefs absetzen, ohne zu warten auf action der gens, and even against its wishes.

3. Obligation not to marry in the gens.

Diese rule noch inflexible bei den Iroquois. – Bei Entstehung der gens brothers were intermarried to each other’s wives in a group, and sisters to each other’s husbands in a group; gens sought to exclude brothers and sisters from the marriage relation by prohibiting to marry in the gens.

4. Mutual rights of inheritance of the property of deceased members der gens.

Im Status of Savagery property beschränkt auf personal effects; im Lower Status of Barbarism kamen noch hinzu possessory rights in joint-tenement houses u. gardens. The most valuable personal articles buried mit body des deceased owner.

Im übrigen: property to remain in the gens and to be distributed among the gentiles des deceased owner. Dies theoretisch noch rule bei den Iroquois; praktisch the effects einer deceased person appropriated by his nearest relations within the gens. In case of a male his own brothers and sisters and maternal uncles divided his effects amongst each other; in the case of a female her property inherited by her children u. her sisters, to the exclusion of her brothers. In beiden Fällen blieb property in gens. Deshalb nahm husband nichts von wife u. vice versa. These mutual rights of inheritance strengthened the autonomy of the gens.

5. Reciprocal obligations of help, defense, and redress of injuries.

Individual depended for security upon his gens; bond of kin powerful element for mutual support; to wrong a person was to wrong his gens. Herrera: „History of America“ erzählt von den Mayas of Yukatan: wo satisfaction to be made for damages, if he [who was] adjudged to pay was like to be reduced to poverty, the kindred (gens) contributed; selbe sagt v. Florida Indians: Stirbt ein Bruder od. Sohn, so verhungern eher the people of the house than seek anything to eat during 3 months, aber kindred u. relations send it all in. Persons, removing von one village to another, could not transfer their possessory right to cultivated lands or to a section of a joint-tenement house to a stranger; must leave them to his gentile kindred. Herrera refers to this usage under the Indian tribes of Nicaragua.

Garcilasso de la Vega ⦗ Royal Commentaries Lond. ed. 1688, Rycaut’s Trans. p. 107⦘ bemerkt über die tribes der Peruvian Andes, dass „when the commonalty, or ordinary sort, married, the communities ( = gentes) of the people were obliged to build and provide them houses.“

The ancient practice of blood revenge … had its birthplace in the gens. Tribunals for the trial of criminals and laws prescribing their punishment, came late into existence in gentile society. Unter den Iroquois and other Indian tribes generally, the obligation to avenge the murder of a kinsman universally recognized. Vorher Beilegungsversuch zwischen gens of the slayer u. gens des slain; a council of the members of each gens held separetely, propositions made on behalf of the murderer for a condonation of the act meist in Form of expression of regret u. presents of considerable value; zog das alles nicht, weil gentile kindred der slain person implacable, so ernannte die gens (des slain) unter ihren members one or more avengers, die den criminal to pursue, until discovered, and then to slay him wherever he might be found. If they did so, this no ground of complaint by any member of the gens of the victim.

6. The right of bestowing names upon the members of the gens.

Unter savage u. barbaric tribes there is no name for the family. The personal names von individuals derselben family indicate no family connection between them. ⦗family name ist nicht älter als die Civilization⦘ Indian personal names, however, usually indicate the gens of the individual to persons of other gentes in the same tribe. As a rule each gens had names for persons that were its special property, and, as such, could not be used by other gentes of the same tribe. A gentile name conferred of itself gentile rights.

After birth of the child his mother selected for him a name, not in use, belonging to the gens, with the concurrence of her nearest relatives. The child not fully christened until its birth u. the name of its father, had been announced at the next ensuing council of the tribe. Bei Tod einer Person, konnte deren Name nicht wieder used werden in the life-time of his oldest surviving son, without the consent of the latter. ⦗Dies wie alles particulare, wenn nicht direct Gegentheil gesagt, gilt von den Iroquois⦘

Zwei classes of names in use, one adapted to childhood, the other to adult life; one „being taken away“ (ihre expression) u. der andre „bestowed“. Im Alter v. 16 od. 18 der erste Name weggenommen, usually durch a chief der gens u. einer der 2ten Klasse statt dessen gegeben. At the next council of the tribe the change of names was publicly announced, after which the person, if a male, assumed the duties of manhood. In some Indian tribes the youth was required to go out upon the war-path and earn his second name by some act of personal bravery. After a severe illness nicht ungewöhnlich for a person, from superstitious considerations, to solicit and obtain a second change of name. When a person was elected a Sachem od. a chief, his name was taken away, and a new one conferred at the time of his installation.

Das Individual had no control over the question of a change; was prerogative der female relatives u. der chiefs; but an adult person might change his name provided he could induce a chief to announce it in council. A person having the control of a particular name, wie der eldest son of that of his deceased father, might lend it to a friend in another gens; but after the death of the person thus bearing it the name reverted to the gens to which it belonged. The names jetzt in use unter den Iroquois u. andern Indian tribes meist ancient names handed down in the gentes from time immemorial.

In familiar intercourse u. formal salutation the American Indians address each other by the term of relationship the person spoken to sustains to the speaker. When related they salute by kin; wenn nicht, they substitute „my friend“. Gälte für lümmelhaft to address an Indian by his personal name, or to inquire his name directly from himself. Anglo-Saxon ancestors der »English« hatten bis Norman Conquest nur single personal names, no name to designate the family. Zeigt an späte Erscheinung der Monogamie; u. Existenz in früherer Periode von a Saxon gens.

7. The right of adopting strangers into the gens.

Captives taken in war either put to death, or adopted into some gens; letztres mit women u. children, taken prisoners, usual. Adoption not only conferred gentile rights, sondern auch die nationality of the tribe.

The person adopting a captive placed him or her in the relation of a brother or a sister; if a mother adopted, in that of a son or a daughter; and ever afterwards treated the person in all respects as though born in that relation.

Slavery, which in the Upper Status of Barbarism became the fate of the captive, was unknown among tribes in the Lower Status in the aboriginal period. Captives when adopted were often assigned in the family the places of deceased persons slain in battle, in order to fill up the broken ranks of relatives. Ausnahmsweise declining gens so replenished, z. B. at certain time die Hawk gens der Senecas so much thinned, dass dem Erlöschen nah; to save the gens, a number of persons from the Wolf gens by mutual consent were transferred in a body by adoption to that of the Hawk. Das Adoptionsrecht left to the discretion of each gens. Unter den Iroquois die Adoptionsceremonie performed at a public council of the tribe, wodurch turned practically in a religious rite.

8. Religious rites in the Gens?

Kann kaum gesagt werden, dass any Indian gens had special religious rites; aber their religious worship [had] mehr od. minder direct connection with the gentes; religious ideas germinated u. forms of worship instituted in gens, expanded from the gens over the tribe, statt special to remain to the gens. So bei den Iroquois 6 annual religious festivals ⦗Maple, Planting, Berry, Green-Corn, Harvest u. New Year’s Festivals⦘ common to all the gentes united in a tribe, observed at stated seasons of the year.

Jede gens furnished a number of „Keepers of the Faith“, male and female, charged mit celebration jener festivals; conducted in selben die ceremonies zus. mit den Sachems u. Chiefs der Tribes who, ex officio „Keepers of the Faith“. With no official head, none of the marks of a priesthood, their functions equal. Die „female keepers of the faith“ bes. charged mit preparation of the feast, provided at all councils at the close of each day for all persons in attendance; was a dinner in common. – Their worship was one of thanksgiving, with invocations des Great Spirit u. der Lesser Spirits to continue to them the blessings of life. (Cf. Morgan’s: League of the Iroquois, p. 182)

9. A common burial place.

Ancient – aber nicht exclusive – mode of burial: by scaffolding the body until the flesh had wasted, danach die bones collected u. preserved in bark barrels in a house constructed for their reception; die belonging zur selben gens usually placed in the same house. Rev. Dr Cyrus Byington found these practices unter den Choctas, 1827; so sagt Adair ⦗ Hist. of the Americ. Indians, p. 183⦘ von den Cherokees: „I saw three of them, in one of their towns pretty near each other … Each house contained the bones of one tribe separately, with the hieroglyphical figures of each family (gens) on each of the oddshaped arks.“ Die Iroquois in ancient times used scaffolds u. preserved the bones of deceased relatives in bark barrels, often keeping them in the house they occupied. They also buried in the ground; im letztern Fall die same gens not always buried locally together, unless they had a common cemetery for the village. Rev. Ashur Wright, a missionary among the Senecas, wrote to Morgan: „I find no trace of the influence of clanship in the burial places of the dead … buried promiscuously … they say that formerly the members of the different clans more frequently resided together than they do at present time. As one family they were more under the influence of family feeling, and had less of individual interest.“

At the Tuscarora reservation (near Lewiston), obgleich die Tuscaroras now »Christians«, hat tribe one common cemetery, aber die individuals of the same gens – of Beaver, Bear, Gray Wolf etc are buried in a row by themselves. Dort husbands u. wives separated u. buried in separate rows; ebenso fathers u. their children; aber found in the same row mothers and their children u. brothers u. sisters.

Unter den Iroquois u. andern Indian tribes in same status of advancement, bei dem funeral of a deseased gentilis, all the members of the gens are mourners; die addresses at the funeral, the preparation of the grave, u. the burial of the body were performed by members of other gentes.

Die Village Indians v. Mexico u. Central America practiced a slow cremation ⦗confined to chief and principal men⦘, ebenso scaffolding u. burying in the ground.

10. A Council of the Gens.

The Council – instrument of government u. supreme authority über gens, tribe, confederacy. Ordinary affairs adjusted durch die chiefs; those of general interest submitted to the determination of the council u. der council sprang from the gentile organization – the Council of Chiefs; its history, gentil, tribal, u. confederate, bis political society intervened, changing Council in Senat.

Simplest u. lowest form of the Council – that of the Gens; a democratic assembly, wo every adult male u. female member had a voice upon all questions brought before it; it elected u. deposed its sachems u. chiefs, ditto „Keepers of the Faith“, it condoned or avenged the murder of a gentilis, it adopted persons into the gens. It was the germ of the higher council of the tribe, and of that still higher of the confederacy, each of which was composed exclusively of chiefs as representatives of the gentes.

So dies bei Iroquois u. selbe Rechte der gentes der Grecian u. Latin tribes ⦗save Punkt 1, 2, 6, deren ancient existence doch presumirt werden muss⦘.

All the members of an Iroquois gens personally free, bound to defend each other’s freedom; equal in privileges u. personal rights; Sachem u. chiefs claiming no superiority; a brotherhood bound together by the ties of kin. Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, though never formulated, were cardinal principles der Gens u. diese die unit of a social u. governmental system, the foundation, worauf Indian society organized. Erklärt sense of independence u. personal dignity universally an attribute of Indian character.

Zur Zeit der europäischen Entdeckung waren die American Indian tribes generally organized into gentes, with descent in the female line; in einigen Tribes, wie den Dacotas, the gentes had fallen out; in andern, wie unter Ojibwas, den Omahas u. Mayas of Yucatan, descent has changed from female to male line. Throughout aboriginal America die gens nahm ihren Namen von some animal, or inanimate object, never from a person; in this early condition of society, the individuality of persons was lost in the gens; die gentes der Grecian u. Latin tribes in der relativ späten Periode wo sie under historical notice kommen, were (bereits) named after persons. In einigen der tribes, wie bei Moqui Village Indians of New Mexico, the members of the gens claimed their descent from the animal whose name they bore – their remote ancestors having been transformed by the Great Spirit von animal into human form.

In der present condition der Haupt Indian tribes Personenzahl in jeder gens would range v. 100 to 1000.

Except the Polynesian, every family of mankind seems to have come under the Gentile organization.

Pt. II. Ch. III. The Iroquois Phratry.

The phratry (φρατρία) a brotherhood, a natural growth from the organization into gentes; an organic union or association of 2 or more gentes of the same tribe for certain common objects. These gentes were usually such as had been formed by the segmentation of an original gens.

Unter den Grecian gentes phratry nearly as constant as the gens; jeder der 4 tribes der Athenians organized in 3 phratries, each composed of 30 gentes; also 4 tribes = 12 phratries = 360 gentes, od. 4 tribes = 4 × 3 phratries = 4 × 3 × 30 gentes. Solch numerisch symmetrische Organisation beweist, dass später [mit] Gesetz herumgearbeitet an der gegebnen Division v. tribes in phratries u. phratries in gentes. All the gentes of a tribe – as a rule – of common descent u. bearing a common tribal name. The phratric organization had a natural foundation in the immediate kinship of certain gentes as subdivisions of an original gens u. auf dieser basis auch die Grecian phratry originally formed. Das spätere legislative numerical adjustment der Athenian tribes in phratries u. gentes erheischte nur incorporation of alien gentes u. transfer by consent or constraint.

Von den functions der Grecian phratry wenig bekannt: observance of special religious rites; condonation or revenge of the murder of a phrator; purification of a murderer er penalty of his crime escaped preparatory to his restoration to society. ( »ποία δὲ χέρνιψ φρατέρων προσδέξεται« (Aeschylus, Eumenides, v. 656) ) In Athen überlebte diese institution die Errichtung of political society unter Cleisthenes; its function: to look after the registration of citizens; wurde so guardian of descents u. of the evidence of citizenship. The wife upon her marriage was enrolled in the phratry of her husband u. die children der marriage were enrolled in the gens and phratry of their father. The phratry had still the duty to prosecute the murderer of a phrator in the courts of justice. (veränderte Form der Blutrache!) Wären alle details known, we would probably find the phratry connected mit the common tables, the public games, the funerals of distinguished men, the earliest army organization, and the proceedings of councils, as well as in observance of religious rites and the guardianship of social privileges.

Analogue of Greek phratry – the Roman curia. »εἴη δ’ ἂν Ἑλλάδι γλώττῃ τὰ ὀνόματα ταῦτα μεθερμηνευόμενα φυλὴ μὲν καὶ τριττὺς ἡ τρίβους, φράτρα δὲ καὶ λόχος ἡ κουρία« (Dionys. l. II, c. VII; cf. l. II, c. 13)

Jede curia = 10 gentes [und 10 curiae] in each of the 3 Roman tribes, making 30 curiae u. 300 gentes; the curia entered directly into the [functions of] government. The assembly of the gentes – comitia curiata – voted by curiae, each having one collective vote. This assembly the sovereign power of the Roman people down to Servius Tullius.

Of organic growth the phratry der American aborigines, wo sie existirte under large number of tribes; had no governmental functions, wie gens, tribe, confederacy; certain social functions, namentlich wichtig when the tribe was large. It presents the phratry in its archaic form and in its archaic functions.

1. The Eight gentes of the Seneca-Iroquois Tribes, reintegrated in 2 phratries.

De-ă-non-dă’-a-yoh (Phratry) bedeutet brotherhood. The gentes in the same phratry are brother gentes to each other, and cousin-gentes to those of the other phratry; die Senecas brauchen diese Ausdrücke when speaking of gentes in relation to the phratries. Originally marriage not allowed unter den members der same phratry, aber die Members je einer phratry konnten heirathen into any gens of the other. Dies Verbot (die Heirath unter Gliedern derselben Phratry) zeigt, dass die gentes of each phratry were subdivisions of an original gens, u. das Verbot to marry into one’s own gens had followed to its subdivisions. Diese Restriction war seit lang verschwunden, ausser mit Bezug auf marriage eines Individuums in seiner eignen gens. Tradition der Senecas, dass die Bär u. the Deer die original gentes, von denen die andern subdivisions. Also: natural foundation der phratry – the kinship of the gentes of which it was composed. After their subdivision from increase of numbers there was a natural tendency to their reunion in a higher organization for objects common to them all. Dieselben gentes nicht für immer constant in a phratry: wenn das equilibrium in their respective numbers disturbed, transfers of particular gentes from one phratry to the other occurred.

Mit increase of numbers in a gens, followed by local separation of its members, segmentation occurred, and the seceding portion adopted a new gentile name. Aber tradition of their former unity remained u. became the basis of their reorganization in a phratry.

2. Cayuga-Iroquois. 8 gentes unequally divided between 2 phratries.

Seven of these gentes selbe wie die der Senecas; the Heron gens verschwunden; Eel takes its place, but transferred to the other side. The Snipe u. Beaver gentes also have exchanged phratries. Die Cayugas nennen auch die gentes der same phratry »brother gentes«, die der opposite phratry »cousin gentes«.

3. Onondaga-Iroquois (8 gentes, unequally divided in phratries wie bei Cayugas).

Hawk (bei den Cayugas) ersetzt durch Ball bei den Onondagas. Composition der Phratries different von der der Senecas. 3 der gentes in der 1st phratry selbe, aber Bear gens now found mit Deer.

Die Onondagas have no Hawk, the Senecas no Eel gens, aber fraternize when they meet, as connected with each other.

Die Mohawks u. Oneidas haben nur 3 gentes: 1) Bear; 2) Wolf; 3) Turtle; no phratries. Zur Zeit der Bildung der Confederation seven of the 8 Seneca gentes existed in the several tribes, as shown by the establishment of Sachemships in them; but the Mohawk u. Oneidas had only the 3 named; they had then lost an entire phratry, and one gens of that remaining – if (!) it is supposed (!) that the original tribes were once composed of the same gentes.

When a tribe organized in gentes u. phratries subdivides, it might occur on the line of the phratric organization. Obgleich die members of a tribe intermingled throughout by marriage, each gens in a phratry is composed of females with their children and descendants through females, who formed the body of the phratry. Would incline to remain locally together, and thus might become detached in a body. Die male members of the gens married to women of other gentes and remaining with their wives would not affect the gens since the children of the males do not belong to its connexion. The gentes and phratries can be followed through every tribe.

The Tuscarora-Iroquois wurden detachirt vom main stock in unbekannter Periode der Vergangenheit, bewohnten die Neuse-river region von North Carolina zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung. Um 1712 verjagt aus dieser Area, removed to the country der Iroquois, were admitted in die Confederacy as 6th member.

Tuscarora-Iroquois. 2 Phratries v. 8 gentes.

Haben 6 gentes in common with Cayugas u. Onondagas, 5 mit Senecas, 3 mit Mohawks u. Oneidas. The Deer Gens, die sie einst besassen, extinct in modern times. Wolf gens now divided in 2, Gray u. Yellow; ebenso Turtle Gens verdoppelt in Great u. Little. 3 of the gentes in the first phratry the same with 3 in the 1st phratry der Senecas u. Cayugas, nur die Turtle gens double. Da several 100 years zwischen separation der Tuscarora von u. return zu ihren congeners, Beweis of permanence in the existence of a gens. Wie bei den andern tribes, die gentes in der same phratry called brother gentes, die in the other cousin gentes.

Differences in the composition der Phratries zeigen ihre modification to meet changes of condition, (die die sie bildenden gentes befielen, wie Entvölkerung einiger, od. extinction etc) to preserve some degree of equilibrium in the number of phrators in each. Phratric organization unter Iroquois von unvordenklicher Zeit, älter als the confederacy, established über 4 centuries ago. Im Ganzen die difference in their composition as to gentes small, beweist permanence der Phratry sowohl als der gens. Die Iroquois tribes hatten 38 gentes u. in 4 of the tribes a total of 8 phratries.

Unter den Iroquois die Phratry theils für social theils für religious objects.

1. Games, gewöhnlich bei tribal u. confederate councils. z. B. in ballgame der Senecas they play by phratries, eine gegen die andre, u. bet against each other upon the result of the game. Each phratry puts forwards its best players etc. Before das Spiel beginnt, articles of personal property are hazarded upon the results durch members der opposite phratries, are deposited with keepers to abide the event.

2. At a council of the tribe the sachems and chiefs in each phratry usually seated on opposite sides of an imaginary Council-fire u. the speakers addressed the 2 opposite bodies as the representatives of the phratries.

3. Wenn murder committed erst council der gens des slain, dann council der gens des Mörders; aber gens of the criminal calls oft on die other gentes of their phratry (when the slayer u. the slayed belonged to opposite phratries), to unite with them to obtain a condonation of the crime. Dann hielt diese Phratry ein council u. addressed itself hierauf an die andre Phratry to which it sent a delegation with a belt of white wampum asking for a council of the phratry u. an adjustment of the crime. They offered reparation to the family u. gens des murdered in expressions of regret u. presents of value. Negotiations between the 2 councils, bis affirmative or negative Entscheidung erreicht. Influence einer phratry grösser als die einer gens u. by calling into action die opposite phratry condonation wahrscheinlicher, namentlich bei extenuating circumstances. Darum Grecian phratry (vor Civilization) übernahm main management of cases of murder u. also of purification des murderer wenn he escaped punishment; hence, nach Errichtung der polit. society, nimmt phratry die duty of prosecuting the murderer in the courts of justice.

4. At funerals of persons of recognized importance – conspicuous functions der phratries (p. 95, 96). ⦗In the case of a defunct Sachem, the opposite phratry, not his own, sent immediately after the funeral, the official wampum-belt of the deceased ruler to the central council fire at Onondaga, as a notification of his demise. This was retained until the installation of his successor, upon whom it then bestowed as the insignia of his office.⦘

5. Phratry directly concerned in the election of sachems and chiefs of the several gentes. Hatte a gens successor ernannt für ihren deceased Sachem (od. elected a chief of the 2nd grade), so expected as a matter of course that the gentes of the same phratry would confirm the choice; aber manchmal opposition von Seiten der opposite phratry. Dadurch kam action of council of each phratry in’s Spiel.

6. Früher vor modern times had the Senecas »Medicine lodges«; letztere formed a prominent part of their religious system; to hold a Medicine Lodge was to observe their highest religious rites, and to practice their highest religious mysteries; they had 2 such organizations, one in each phratry; each was a brotherhood, into which new members were admitted by a formal initiation.

Unlike the Grecian phratry u. die Roman curia this Indian phratry had no official head; ebenso no religious functionaries belonging to it as distinguished von gens u. tribe.

M. betrachtet die 4 „lineages“ of the Tlascalans who occupied the 4 quarters of the pueblo of Tlascala, als so many phratries (nicht als so many tribes, weil sie occupied the same pueblo and spoke the same dialect). Each „lineage“ od. phratry had a distinct military organization, a peculiar costume u. banner, and its head war-chief (Teuctli) who was its general military commander. They went forth to battle by phratries. The organization of a military force by phratries u. by tribes nicht unbekannt den homerischen Griechen. Nestor sagt zu Agamemnon:

»Κρῖν’ ἄνδρας κατὰ φῦλα, κατὰ φρήτρας, Ἀγάμεμνον, ὡς φρήτρη φρήτρηφιν ἀρήγῃ, φῦλα δὲ φύλοις.« ( Hom. Iliad. II, 362–363.)

Die Chocta gentes united in 2 phratries, the first called „Divided People“, containing 4 gentes; the second „Beloved People“, contains also 4 gentes. This separation of the people into 2 divisions by gentes created two phratries. – A tribe hat nie weniger als 2 gentes. The gens increases in number of its members, divides into 2; these again subdivide, and in time reunite in 2 or more phratries. These phratries form a tribe, and its members speak the same dialect. In course of time this tribe falls into several by process of segmentation, which in turn reunite in a confederacy. Such a confederacy is a growth, through the tribe and phratry, from a pair of gentes.

Mohegan Tribe, had 3 original gentes, Wolf, Turtle, Turkey. Each of these subdivided, and the subdivisions became independent gentes, but they retained the names of the original subdivisions of each gens as their respective phratric names, alias the subdivisions of each gens reorganized into a phratry. Dies beweist conclusively the natural process, wodurch, in course of time, a gens breaks up into several, u. diese remain united in a phratric organization which is expressed by assuming a phratric name.

Mohegan tribe, originally consisting aus 3 gentes, Wolf, Turtle, Turkey.

Selten unter den American Indian Tribes to find such plain evidence of the segmentation of gentes, followed by the formation into phratries of their respective subdivisions. Shows also that the phratry founded upon the kinship of the gentes. As a rule the name of the original gens out of which others had formed – unknown; but in each of these cases it remains as the name of the phratry. Der Name nur einer der 12 Athenian phratries known to us; die der Iroquois had no name but that of brotherhood.

Pt. II Ch. IV The Iroquois Tribe.

American aborigines fallen in zahllose tribes – by the natural process of segmentation; each tribe individualized by a name, a separate dialect, a supreme government, a territory, occupied and defended as its own. The dialects as numereous as the tribes, for separation nicht complete, before dialectical variation had commenced. – Morgan glaubt, dass all the numerous aboriginal American tribes, (minus Eskimos who no aborigines) formed out of one original people.

Der term Nation angewandt auf viele Indian tribes, trotz geringer Volkszahl, v. wegen exclusive possession of a dialect and of a territory. Aber Tribe u. Nations nicht genaue Equivalents; unter gentile institutions entspringt nation nur, wann die tribes, united under the same government, have coalesced into one people, wie die 4 Athenian tribes in Attica, 3 Dorian tribes in Sparta, 3 Latin u. Sabine tribes at Rome. Federation requires independent tribes in separate territorial areas; coalescence unites them by a higher process in the same area, obgleich tendency to local separation by gentes u. by tribes would continue. The confederacy is the nearest analogue of the nation.

Sehr selten Fälle unter den American aborigines, wo the tribe embraced peoples speaking different dialects; wo der Fall, war’s Resultat der Union eines schwächeren mit einem stärkeren tribe speaking a closely related dialect, wie die union der Missouris – after their overthrow – mit den Otoes. Der great body der aborigines ward gefunden in independent tribes; nur wenige hatten es gebracht zu confederacy of tribes speaking dialects of the same stock language.

Constant tendency to disintegration existed in the elements of gentile organization, aggravated durch tendency to divergence of speech, inseparable from their social state and the large area of their occupation. A verbal language, obgleich merkwürdig persistent in its vocables u. noch mehr in its grammatical forms, – is incapable of permanence. Der lokalen Separation – in area – folgt im Lauf der Zeit variation in speech; dies leads to separation in interests u. to ultimate independence. Die grosse Zahl von dialects u. stock languages in Nord- u. Südamerika wahrscheinlich – save die Eskimos – abgeleitet von one original language, erheischten für ihre Bildung the time measured by 3 ethnic periods.

New tribes u. new gentes were constantly forming by natural growth; der process sensibly accelerated durch the great expanse des American continent. Die Methode war einfach. From some overstocked geographical centre, possessing superior advantages in the means of subsistence, a gradual outflow of people. Dies continued jährlich, so a considerable population developed at a distance vom original seat des tribe; im Lauf der Zeit die emigrants werden distinct in interests, strangers in feeling, schliesslich divergent in speech; separation u. independence follow, though their territories were contiguous. Dies repeated itself von age zu age in newly acquired as well as in old areas … When increased numbers pressed upon the means of subsistence, the surplus removed to a new seat wo sie sich mit Leichtigkeit etablirten, weil the government was perfect in every gens u. in any number of gentes united in a band. ⦗Dies was »organized colonisation«!⦘

Unter den Village Indians selber Process in etwas modificirter Form. When a village became overcrowded with members, a colony went up or down on the same stream u. commenced a new village; repeated at intervals, several such villages appear, each independent of the other and self-governing body; but united in a league or confederacy for mutual protection; dialectical variation finally springing up, completes their growth into tribes.

Tribes formed by the subdivisions of an original tribe possess a number of gentes in common u. speak dialects of the same language; have a number of [the same] gentes selbst nach centuries of separation. So die Hurons, jetzt Wyandots, haben 6 gentes desselben Namens mit 6 der gentes der Seneca-Iroquois, nach at least 400 J. Trennung. Die Potawattamies haben 8 gentes selben Namens mit 8 unter den Ojibwas, während die former 6 u. die letzteren 14 different haben; showing dass neue gentes formed in each tribe by segmentation seit ihrer Trennung. Ein noch älterer Absetzer der Ojibwas – oder eines common parent tribe beider – die Miamis, haben nur 3 gentes in common mit den former, Wolf, Loon u. Eagle.

Illustrations from tribes in Lower State of Barbarism.

8 Missouri tribes, bei ihrer Entdeckung, occupy the banks des Missouri über 1000 miles, zus. mit den banks of its tributaries, the Kansas u. the Platte; ebenso the smaller rivers of Iowa; ebenso West Bank of Mississippi down to the Arkansas. Ihre dialects beweisen dass the people in 3 tribes before the last subdivisions, nämlich:

1. Punkas u. Omahas; 2) Iowas, Otoes u. Missouris; 3) Kaws, Osages, u. Quappas; ihre several dialects nearer to each other than to any other dialect der Dakotian stock language to which they belong; also linguistic necessity for their derivation von an original tribe, wovon sie subdivisions; spreading from a central point on the Missouri along its banks, above u. below; mit increase of distance between their settlements – separation in interests, followed by divergence of speech u. finally by independence. Extending along a river in a prairie country such a people might separate first in 3 tribes, dann in 8, the organization of each subdivision remaining complete. Division meant a separation into parts by natural expansion over a larger area, followed by a complete segmentation. Der uppermost tribe on the Missouri – the Punkas at the mouth of the Niobrara river; the lowermost the Quappas at the mouth of the Arkansas on the Mississippi, near 1500 miles between them. The intermediate region, confined to the narrow belt of forest upon the Missouri, was held by the remaining 6 tribes. They were strictly River Tribes.

Tribes of Lake Superior 1) Ojibwas; 2) Otawas (= O-tä’-was) u. 3) Potawattamies subdivisions of an original tribe; die Ojibwas der original tribe, the stem, blieben am original seat at the great fisheries upon the outlet of the lake; they are styled „Elder Brother“ durch die beiden andern, die Otawas „next elder brother“, die Potawattamies – „Younger Brother“. Die letzteren separated first, die Otawas last, as shown by the relative amount of dialectical variation, that of the Potawattamies being greatest. Als entdeckt, 1614, die Ojibwas seated at the Rapids on the outlet of Lake Superior, from which point they had spread along the southern shore of the lake to the site of Ontonagon, along its northeastern shore and down the St. Mary River well toward Lake Huron; ihre position famos for a fish and game subsistence ⦗they did not cultivate maize and plants⦘; zurückstehend keiner position in Northamerica ausser dem Valley des Columbia. ⦗Die Ojibwas manufactured earthen pipes, water jars, u. vessels in ancient times, as they now assert. Indian pottery zu verschiednen Zeiten dug up at the Sault St. Mary, the work of their forefathers.⦘ Mit such advantages certain to develop a large Indian population u. send out successive bands of emigrants to become independent tribes.

Die Potawattamies occupied a region on the confines of Upper Michigan u. Wisconsin, woraus 1641 the Dakotas were in act of expelling them. Zugleich die Otawas, deren earlier residence supposed on the Otawa river of Canada, had drawn westward, damals seated upon the Georgian Bay, the Manitouline islands u. at Mackinaw, von welchen Punkten they were spreading südlich über Lower Michigan. – Separation in place and distance had long before their discovery resulted in the formation of dialects, u. in tribal independence. Die 3 tribes, deren territories contiguous, had formed an alliance for mutual protection, „the Otawa Confederation“. (offensive and defensive league)

Vor diesen secessions another affiliated tribe, the Miamis, had broken off vom Ojibwa stock – the common parent tribe – u. migrated to Central Illinois u. Western Indiana. Folgend im track dieser migration were the Illinois, another u. later offshoot vom same stem, who afterwards subdivided in Peorias, Kaskaskias, Weaws u. Piankeshaws. Ihre dialects mit dem der Miamis nearest affinity mit dem Ojibwa u. next mit the Cree. ⦗The Potawattamie u. Cree have diverged about equally; wahrscheinlich Ojibwas, Otawas u. Cree one people in dialect nach dem detachment der Potawattamies⦘ Outflow aller dieser tribes from central seat at the great fisheries of Lake Superior – as a natural centre of subsistence. Die Algonkins v. New England, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia u. Carolina sehr wahrscheinlich derived von same stock.

Each emigrating band in the nature of a military colony, seeking to acquire u. hold a new area, preserving at first, and as long as possible, a connection with the mother tribe; durch these successive movements they sought to expand their joint possessions u. afterward, to resist the intrusion of alien people within their limits … the Indian Tribes speeking dialects of the same stock language have been usually found in territorial continuity, however extended their common area. Dies gilt, in the main, von all tribes of mankind linguistically united … Spreading from one common centre … they have preserved their connection with the motherland as a means of succor in times of danger, and as a place of refuge in calamity.

Damit an area initial point of migration werde durch gradual production of a surplus population required special advantages in the means of subsistence. Solche natural centres wenig zahlreich in Nordamerika – in fact, nur 3. An der Spitze the Valley of the Columbia; ausgezeichnetste region on the face of the earth in the variety and amount of subsistence it afforded, prior to the cultivation of Maize and plants. Excellent game country as mixture of forest u. prairie. In the prairies wuchs a species of bread-root, the Kamash u. zwar abundantly; in these respects it was, however, not superior to other areas; was es auszeichnet – inexhaustible supply of salmon im Columbia u. andern Küstenflüssen, they crowded these streams in millions, were taken in the season mit facility u. greatest abundance. After being split open u. dried in the sun, they were packed u. removed to the villages, formed their principal food during the greater part of the year. Ausserdem die shellfisheries der Küste, supplying large amount of food during the winter months. Ausserdem Clima mild u. equable throughout the year, about that of Virginia u. Tennessee; was the paradise of tribes ohne knowledge der cereals. Es kann sehr wahrscheinlich gemacht werden, dass das Valley of Columbia the seedland of the Ganowánian family, wovon successive streams of migrating bands, bis both divisions des Continent occupied u. dass beide divisions, bis zur Epoche der europ. Entdeckung replenished with inhabitants von dieser Quelle. Die grosse Ausdehnung der Centralprairien, spreading continuously more than 1500 miles v. Nord nach Süd u. über 1000 miles von Ost nach West, interposed a barrier to free communication zwischen Pacific u. Atlantic sides des Continents in Nordamerika. Wahrscheinlich daher, dass an original family commencing its spread from the Valley of the Columbia, u. migrating under the influence of physical causes, would reach Patagonia eher als Florida. Die Entdeckung des Maize würde den course of events nicht materially change, or suspend the action of previous causes. Nicht bekannt wo das American Cereal indigenous; aber Central America, wo vegetation intensively active, wo Maize peculiarly fruitful, wo die oldest seats der Village Indians found … probable place of nativity of Maize. Von Centralamerica die cultivation would have spread to Mexico, dann Neu Mexico, u. valley des Mississippi, von da östlich to the shores des Atlantic; the volume of cultivation diminishing from the starting point to the extremities. It would spread independently von den Village Indians, from the desire of more barbarous tribes to gain the new subsistence; aber extended nie über Neu Mexico to the Valley of the Columbia, obgleich cultivation practised durch die Minnitarees u. Mandans des Upper Missouri, die Shyans des Red River des North, by the Hurons of Lake Simcoe in Canada, the Abenakies of the Kennebec, wie generally by all the tribes zwischen Mississippi u. Atlantic. Migrating bands von dem Valley of Columbia would press upon the village Indians of New Mexico u. Mexico, tending to force displaced u. fragmentary tribes towards and through the Isthmus into South America, wohin diese would carry the first germs of progress developed by the Village Indians. Repeated at intervals of time it would tend to bestow upon South America a class of inhabitants far superior to the wild bands formerly supplied, and at the expense of the Northern section thus impoverished. So South America would attain the advanced position in development, even in an inferior country, which seems to have been the fact. The Peruvian legend of Manco Capac u. Mama Oello, children of the sun, brother and sister, husband and wife shows that a band of village Indians migrating from a distance, though not necessarily from North America direct, had gathered together and taught the rude tribes of the Andes the higher arts of life, including the cultivation of Maize and plants; legend dropped out the band, retained only the leader and his wife.

2 tes) (nach Valley of Columbia) natural initial centre: the peninsula between lakes Superior, Huron u. Michigan, the seat of the Ojibwas u. nursery land of many Indian tribes.

3t es) natural initial centre: the lake region of Minnesota, the nursery ground der present Dakotian tribes; Grund anzunehmen, dass Minnesota was a part of the Algonkin area vor Besetzung durch die Dakotas.

Sobald cultivation of maize u. plants erschien, it tended to localize the people u. support them in smaller areas, as well as to increase their numbers; übertrug aber nicht control des Continents to the most advanced tribes der Village Indians, die fast nur von Cultivation subsisted. Horticulture spread unter den principal tribes in the Lower Status of barbarism, improved greatly their condition, they held, mit den non horticultural tribes, the great areas of North America when discovered, u. v. ihren ranks the Continent replenished mit inhabitants.

Incessant warfare der aborigines mit einander; als Regel the most persistent warfare unter tribes speaking different stocklanguages, wie z. B. zwischen Iroquois u. Algonkin tribes, u. der ersteren ditto mit den Dakota tribes. Dagegen Algonkin u. Dakota tribes lived at peace mit each other, gezeigt durch occupation of continuous areas. Die Iroquois pursued a war of extermination gegen their kindred tribes, the Eries, Neutral Nation, the Hurons u. die Susquehannocks. Tribes speaking dialects derselben stocklanguage können sich verständigen, compose their differences, u. lernen, in virtue of their common descent, sich als natural allies zu betrachten.

Bevölkerungszahl in a given area limited by amount of the subsistence it afforded; when fish u. game the main reliance for food, immense area required to maintain a small tribe. Als farinaceous food hinzukam, area occupied by a tribe still large in proportion to the number of the people. New York – mit 47,000 □ miles hatte nie mehr als 25,000 Indians, inclus. mit den Iroquois die Algonkins on the eastside des Hudson u. upon the Long Island u. die Eries u. Neutral Nation in der westlichen Seite des Staats. A personal government, gegründet upon gentes, unfähig hinreichende central power zu entwickeln to control the increasing numbers des people, wenn sie nicht in reasonable distance von einander blieben.

Unter den Village Indians von Neu Mexico, Mexico u. Centralamerica Wachsthum der Bevölkrungszahl upon a small area hielt nicht den Process der Disintegration auf. Wo verschiedne pueblos seated nah bei einander am selben Strom, the people usually of common descent u. under a tribal or confederate government. ⦗Each pueblo gewöhnlich an independent, self-governing community⦘. About 7 stocklanguages, allein gesprochen in New Mexico, jede mit several dialects. Zur Zeit v. Coronado ’s expedition – 1540–42 – the villages found numerous but small. Es waren ihrer 7 of Cibola, Tucayan u. Quivira u. Hemez u. 12 of Tiguex, u. andre groups indicating a linguistic connection of their members. Unbekannt ob each group confederated. Die 7 Moqui Pueblos (die Tucayan villages of Coronado’s expedition) sollen jetzt confederate sein, waren es wahrscheinlich zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung.

Der process of subdivision operating unter den American aborigines für 1000de v. Jahren, hat in North America allein an 40 stocklanguages entwickelt, wovon jede gesprochen in Anzahl v. Dialects durch gleiche Zahl unabhängiger tribes.

Für an American Indian tribe nur a few hundreds u. höchstens a few 1000 people erheischt, um ihn in a respectable position in Ganowánian family zu stellen.

Functions u. attributes of the Indian tribes. (p. 112–121)

1. Possession of a territory and a name.

the territory – their actual settlement u. so much of the surrounding region als tribe ranged over in hunting u. fishing u. could defend gegen andre encroaching tribes; darüber hinaus a wide margin of neutral grounds, separating them vom nächsten Tribe, speaking a different language, and claimed by neither; less wide u. less clearly marked, when they spoke dialects of the same language.

Die names, die nach u. nach die tribes individualize, in vielen cases zufällig wie die Senecas nannten sich selbst „Great Hill People“ etc. Nach Beginn der europäischen Colonisation im nördlichen Amerika erhielten die Indian tribes Namen von andern tribes who had bestowed names upon them different from their own. Hence a number of tribes known in history under names not recognized by themselves.

2. The exclusive possession of a dialect.

Tribe and dialect substantially co-extensive. Die 12 Dakota bands jetzt properly tribes, aber forced in vorzeitige Trennung durch advance of Americans upon their original area which forced them upon the plains. Früher war ihre connexion so intimate geblieben dass nur one new dialect was forming, the Teeton, on the Missouri; the Isauntie on the Mississippi being the original speech. Vor einigen Jahren die Cherokees zählten 26,000, largest number of Indians ever found within U. St., speaking the same dialect; in the mountain districts of Georgia a slight divergence of speech had occured. Die Ojibwas, still in the main non-horticultural, about 15,000, speak the same dialect; die Dakota tribes, 25,000, 2 closely related dialects. Dies Ausnahmen. In U. St. u. British America zählt a tribe on average less than 2000.

3. The right of investing Sachems and Chiefs elected by the Gentes.

4. The right to depose Sachems and Chiefs.

In the Status of Savagery and in the Lower and also in the Middle Status of barbarism, office was bestowed for life, or during good behavior.

Die Sachems u. Chiefs, v. den gentes gewählt, wurden nach Tribe Bildung, members des Tribal Council; hence das Recht v. Investitur letzterem vorbehalten; ebenso hatte er auch Absetzungsrecht; ging, nach Bildung v. Confederation auf council of confederacy über. The offices of Sachem and Chief universally elective north of Mexico; in other parts of the Continent, evidence, dass sie es allgemein so ursprünglich gewesen.

5. The possession of a religious faith and worship.

»After the fashion of barbarians the American Indians were a religious people.« (p. 115) Medicine lodge – Dancing form of worship.

6. A supreme government through a council of chiefs.

Gens represented by its chiefs; tribe represented by the council of the chiefs of the gentes. Called together under circumstances known to all, held in the midst of the people, open to their orators, it was certain to act under popular influence. Council (tribal) had to guard and protect the common interests of the tribe. Questions and exigencies arising through their incessant warfare with other tribes. As a general rule, the council open to any private individual desiring to address it on a public question. The women allowed to express their wishes and opinions through an orator of their own election. Decision given by the Council. Unanimity was a fundamental law of its action among the Iroquois.

Military operations usually left to the action of the voluntary principle. Theoretically each tribe at war with every other tribe with which it had not formed a treaty of peace. Any person at liberty to organize a war-party and conduct an expedition wohin er wollte. Er announced his project by giving a war-dance and inviting volunteers. If he succeeded in forming a party, which would consist of such persons as joined him in the dance, they departed immediately, while enthusiasm was at its height. When a tribe was menaced with an attack, war parties were formed to meet it in much the same manner. Where forces so raised were united in one body, each under its own war-captain and their joint movements determined by a council of these captains. This relates to tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism. The Aztecs u. Tlascalans went out by phratries, each subdivision under its own captain, u. distinguished by costumes u. banners.

Confederation of Iroquois u. that of the Aztecs were the most remarkable for aggressive purposes. Unter Tribes in the Lower Status of Barbarism, incl. the Iroquois, the most destructive work performed by inconsiderable war-parties, beständig forming and making expeditions into distant regions. Sanction of the Council for diese expeditions weder sought, nor necessary.

Council of the tribe had power to declare war u. make peace, send and receive embassies, make alliances; intercourse between independent tribes conducted by wise men and chiefs, delegated dazu. When a tribe expected such a delegation, a council was convened for its reception and for the transaction of its business.

7. A head-chief of the tribe in some instances.

Nämlich a Sachem, superior in rank to his associates. Der Council nur selten in session u. urgencies might arise demanding the provisional action of some one authorized to represent the tribe, subject to the ratification of his acts by the council. This only basis for the office ofhead-chief. Iroquois had none u. their confederacy had no executive officer. Wo der head-chief in Indian tribes existed there, in a form too feeble to correspond to the conception of an executive magistrate. The elective tenure of the office of chief, and the liability of the person to deposition, settle the character of the office.

Der Council of Indian chiefs was a government of one power, prevailing generally among the tribes in Lower Status of Barbarism. Dies erstes Stadium.

Zweites Stadium: a government coordinated between a council of chiefs and a general military commander, one representing the civil, the other the military functions. Dies form began to manifest itself in the Lower Status of Barbarism after formation of Confederacies, became definite in Middle Status. Das office of general – chief military commander – was the germ of that of a chief executive magistrate, king, emperor, president; a government of 2 powers.

Drittes Stadium: government of a people or nation by a council of chiefs, an assembly of the people, and a general military commander. Appears under tribes who had attained to the Upper Status of Barbarism, Homeric Greeks, or Italian tribes of the period of Romulus. Large increase of people united in a nation, their establishment in walled cities, creation of wealth in flocks, herds, lands, brought in the assembly of the people as an instrument of government. Council of chiefs became a preconsidering council; popular assembly adopted or rejected public measures, its action final; lastly a general. Dies blieb bis Eintritt v. political society, wenn unter Athenians z. B., council of chiefs became Senate, the assembly of the people the ecclesia or popular assembly.

Im Middle Status of Barbarism the gentes organized into tribes remained as before, aber confederacies more frequent. In some areas, as in the Valley of Mexico, keineswegs – no evidence dafür – dass political society established. It is impossible to found a political society or a state upon gentes.

Pt. II Ch. V The Iroquois Confederacy.

Verbindung for mutual protection erst einfach fact, hervorgerufen durch necessities (wie attack von aussen), dann League, dann systematic confederacy. Bei Entdeckung v. America existirten confederacies in verschiednen parts, u. a. namentlich: Iroquois confederacy of 5 independent tribes, Creek Confederacy of 6, Otawa Confederacy of 3, Dakota League of the „Seven Council Fires“, die Moqui Confederacy in New Mexico of 7 Pueblos, the Aztec Confederacy of 3 tribes in the Valley of Mexico. Am leichtesten Bildung v. confederacy (generally difficult wegen den »unstable geographical relations«) für die Village Indians im Middle Status of Barbarism wegen der nearness ihrer pueblos zu einander u. der smallness ihrer areas. Die berühmtesten confederacies in Northamerica die der Aztecs u. die der Iroquois; letztere genau bekannt; erstere hatte wahrscheinlich denselben Charakter of systematic confederacy, aber in den historischen (span.) Berichten erscheint sie mehr od. minder als blosse league of 3 kindred tribes, offensive and defensive.

The Confederacy had the gentes for its basis and centre u. stocklanguage, (wovon die dialects still mutually intelligible) for its circumference; none found beyond the bounds of the dialects of a common language; otherwise heterogeneous elements would have been forced into the organization. Ausnahmsweis wohl einmal die remains of a tribe, not cognate in speech, admitted into an existing confederacy, wie z. B. die Natchez, after their overthrow by the French, into the Creek Confederacy. There was no possible way of becoming connected on equal terms with a confederacy ausser durch membership in a gens and tribe, and a common speech.

Monarchy incompatible mit gentilism. The Grecian tyrannies were despotisms founded upon usurpation – the germ out of which the later kingdoms arose; the socalled kingdoms of the homeric age were military democracies, and nothing more.

Die Iroquois ursprünglich emigrants from beyond the Mississippi, wahrscheinlich a branch des Dakota Stock; erst nach valley des St. Lawrence, settled near Montreal. Durch die hostility der surrounding tribes gezwungen, sie nach der central region of New York. Mit canoes coasting das östliche Gestade des See Ontario (their numbers small), war ihre erste Niederlassung an Mündung des Oswego river, wo sie nach ihren traditions lang blieben; waren damals wenigstens 3 distinct tribes, 1) Mohawks, 2) Onondagas u. 3) Senecas. Ein tribe settled nachher at the head of the Canandaigua lake, became the Seneca; andrer occupied the Onondaga valley, wurden die Onondagas; dritter passed östlich, settled erst at Oneida, bei site of Utica, removed then to Mohawk Valley, became the Mohawks. Die die blieben, wurden die 4) Oneidas. Ein Theil der Senecas oder der Onondagas settled entlang dem eastern shore des Cayuga lake, wurden die 5) Cayugas. Vor Besetzung durch die Iroquois, scheint New York Theil der Area der Algonkin tribes gewesen zu sein; nach ihren traditions entsetzten die Iroquois die alten Bewohner wie sie gradually ihre Niederlassungen ausdehnten, östlich vom Hudson, u. westlich vom Genesee.

⦗Also bis dato 5 tribes: 1) Seneca, 2) Cayuga, 3) Onondaga, 4) Oneida, 5) Mohawk⦘

Nach ihrer tradition lange Zeit nach ihrer Niederlassung in New York, während der sie common cause against their enemies machten, aber ehe sie confederacy bildeten. Residirten in villages, gewöhnlich umgeben mit stockades, lebten von fish u. game, u. den products of a limited horticulture. Ihre Anzahl nie über 20,000. Precarious subsistence u. incessant warfare repressed numbers in all the aboriginal tribes, inclus. the Village Indians. The Iroquois enshrouded in great forests, then overspreading New York. Zuerst sie entdeckt 1608; um 1675 culminating point ihrer dominion über weite Area, covering grösseren Theil v. New York, Pennsylvania u. Ohio ⦗1651–5 expelled sie their kindred tribes, die Eries, von Area zwischen Genesee river u. Lake Erie, kurz nachher die Neutral Nations vom Niagara river, kamen so in Besitz des Rests von New York, mit Ausnahme des Lower Hudson u. Long Island⦘ u. portions of Canada, north of lake Ontario. Zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung waren sie die highest representatives of the Red Race im Norden v. Mexico in Intelligenz u. advancement, obgleich inferior to the Gulf tribes in arts of life. Noch 4000 Iroquois in New York, about 1000 in Canada u. ebensoviel im Westen.

Confederation formed about 1400–1450 (früher nach den generations of Sachems in the history of David Cusick, a Tuscarora.) The Iroquois lebten – die 5 tribes – in contiguous territories, sprachen einander verständliche dialects derselben Sprache u. hatten certain common gentes in the several tribes. Andre tribes in selben Umständen, aber die Iroquois, durch Bildung der confederacy, zeigten ihre superiority. Nach ihrer Sage die confederacy formed durch a council of wise-men and chiefs der 5 tribes, meeting für den purpose on the north shore of the Onondaga lake, near the site of Syracuse, perfected in ihrer session die organization u. set in immediate operation. Der origin des plan zugeschrieben einer traditionary person Hä-yo-went’-hä, der Hiawatha Longfellow’s. Die formation der Confederation still celebrated unter ihnen as a masterpiece of Indian wisdom; nach den Iroquois selbst bis jetzt fortexistirende Form ihrer Organization mit kaum irgend einem change.

Die general features der Iroquois confederacy sind:

1. A union of 5 tribes, composed of common gentes, under one government on the basis of equality; jeder tribe remaining independent in all matters pertaining to local self-government.

2. A general Council of Sachems, limited in number, equal in rank u. authority, invested with supreme powers in all matters relating to the Confederacy.

3. 50 Sachemships were created and named in perpetuity in certain gentes of the several tribes; with power in these gentes to fill vacancies occurring, by election from among their respective members, u. mit power to depose from office for cause; the right to invest these Sachems with office reserved to the General Council.

4. The Sachems of the Confederacy also Sachems in their respective tribes, and with the Chiefs of these tribes formed the Council of each, which tribal council supreme over all matters pertaining to the tribe exclusively.

5. Unanimity in the Council made essential to every public act.

6. In the General Council the Sachems voted by Tribes, each tribe had so a negative upon the others. (Poland!)

7. Council of each tribe had power to convene the general council; the latter had no power to convene itself.

8. The Confederacy had no chief Executive Magistrate, or official head.

9. The General Council was open to the orators of the people for the discussion of public questions; but the Council alone decided.

10. Experiencing the necessity for a General military commander they created the office in a dual form, that one might neutralize the other. The 2 principal war-chiefs created were made equal in powers.

When the Tuscaroras später admitted, they allowed by courtesy to sit as equals in the General Council, but the original number of Sachems wurde nicht increased.

The sachemships were distributed unequally among the 5 tribes, but without giving to either a preponderance of power, and unequally among the gentes of the last three tribes.

Mohawks had 9 Sachems, Oneidas 9, Onondagas 14, Cayugas 10, Senecas 8.

Die Sachems waren arrangirt in Klassen to facilitate the attainment of unanimity in the Council.

In fact besteht der General Council nur aus 48. Hä-yo-went’-hä u. Da-gä-no-we’-da die 2 legendären Gründer consented to take the office unter den Mohawk Sachems u. to leave their names in the list unter Bedingung that after their demise the 2 should remain thereafter vacant. At all councils for the investiture of Sachems their names are still called. (Candidatures mortes)

Jeder Sachem hat einen aid elected by the gens of his principal from among its members, was installed mit same forms u. ceremonies; had to stand behind his superior on all occasions of ceremony, act as his messenger, in general subject to his directions; er hatte (der aid) office of chief, machte seine Wahl nach Tod des Sachem an dessen Stelle wahrscheinlich; diese aids hiessen: „Braces in the Long House“. (dies »Long House« symbolized the Confederacy)

The names bestowed upon the original Sachems wurden die Namen ihrer resp. successors in perpetuity. z. B. bei Tod v. Gä-ne-o-di’-yo, einem der 8 Seneca Sachems, sein successor gewählt durch die Turtle gens, worin Sachemship erblich u. when »raised up« by the General Council, his own name would be »taken off« u. jener ihm gegeben, was part der ceremony. Ihr jetziger Council noch fully organized, except dem Mohawk tribe, removing to Canada about 1775. Vacancies occurring their places are filled u. a general council is convened to install the new Sachems u. their aids.

For tribal purposes the 5 tribes independent of each other, their territories separated by fixed boundary lines, their tribal interests distinct. Als organization der tribe weder weakened noch impaired durch den Confederate compact; each in vigorous life.

Die Iroquois recommended to the forefathers der Americans (Engl.) 1755 a union of the colonies similar to their own. They saw in the common interests u. common speech der several colonies elements for a confederation.

The Onondagas were made „Keepers of the Wampum“ u. „Keepers of the Council Brand“, the Mohawks „Receivers of Tribute“ from subjugated tribes, the Senecas „Keepers of the Door“ des Long House. Diese u. ähnliche Provisions were made for the common advantage.

Die confederacy rested upon the tribes ostensibly, but primarily upon common gentes. All the members of the same gens, whether Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, or Senecas were brothers and sisters to each other in virtue of their descent von the same ancestor. When they met, the first inquiry was the name of each other’s gens, and next the immediate pedigree of their respective sachems; dann able under their system of consanguinity to find ihre wechselseitige relationship.

3 gentes, – Wolf, Bear, Turtle – common to the 5 tribes; diese u. 3 others were common to 3 tribes; the Wolf gens, durch division of an original tribe into 5, nun in 5 divisions, wovon one in each tribe; selbes mit Bear u. Turtle gentes. Deer, Snipe u. Hawk gentes were common to Senecas, Cayugas u. Onondagas. ⦗Das Erblichmachen der Wahl der Sachems in certain gentes, does it not spring davon, dass certain gentes most common allen tribes?⦘ Der Mohawk des Wolf gens recognized an Oneida, Onandaga, Cayuga od. Seneca von selbem gens, though its members spoke different dialects of the same language, as a brother etc. In the estimation of an Iroquois every member of his gens in whatever tribe was as certainly a kinsman, as an own brother; dies noch in its original force; explains the tenacity, womit die old confederacy zusammenhielt. Had the 5 tribes fallen in collision, it would have turned Wolf against Wolf, Bear against Bear etc, brother against brother. Solang die confederacy dauerte, nie Anarchie nor rupture der Organization. Such persistency v. bond of kin.

The „Long House“ (Ho-de’-no-sote) wurde Symbol der Confederacy; sie nannten sich selbst the „People of the Long House“ (Ho-de’-no-sau-nee), der einzige Name, den sie sich gaben.

Coalescence höhere Stufe des Processes. z. B. die 4 Athenian tribes coalesced in Attica into a nation by the intermingling of the tribes in the same area u. the gradual disappearance der geographical lines between them. Die tribal names u. organizations remained in full vitality, aber without the basis of independent territory. When political society was instituted on the basis of the deme or township, u. all the residents of the deme became a body politic, irrespective of their gens u. tribe, the coalescence became complete.

The Valley of the Onondaga as the seat of the central tribe, and the place where the Council Brand was supposed to be perpetually burning, the usual aber keineswegs exclusive place for holding the councils of the confederacy etc.

Ursprünglich the Hauptobject des Council to raise up sachems to fill vacancies (von death od. deposition), but transacted all other business mit Bezug auf common welfare. Nach u. nach the Council fell into 3 distinct kinds (nach den functions, die er abwechselnd übt); Civil (declares war, makes peace, sends u. receives embassies, enters [into] treaties mit foreign tribes, regulates the affairs of subjugated tribes etc); Mourning Council (raises up Sachems, invests them mit Office); Religious Council (held for the observance of a general religious festival). Nach u. nach Mourning Council for both purposes; jetzt der einzige, da die civil powers of the Confederacy terminated with the supremacy over them of the State.

An Overture made by a foreign tribe to either of the 5 tribes; der tribal council entschied ob die affair worth while to require a council of the confederacy; if so, a herald sent to the nearest tribes (v. den 5) in position, on east u. west, with a belt of wampum, containing a message to the effect that a civil council (Ho-de-os’-seh) [would meet] at specified place, time u. object; der tribe, der das message empfing, musste es senden dem next in position, bis die notification complete. Council assembled nie unless summoned under the prescribed forms. Wenn der Council was to meet for peaceful purposes, then each sachem was to bring with him a bundle of fagots of white cedar, typical of peace; if for warlike purposes, fagots of red cedar, emblematical of war.

Gesetzt die Onondagas seien der tribe, der den General Council had summoned. Am appointed day the Sachems of the several tribes, with their followers, who usually arrived a day or two before u. remained encamped at a distance, were received in a formal manner by the Onondaga sachems at the rising of the sun. They marched in separate processions from their camps to the council grove, each bearing his skin robe and bundle of fagots, wo die Onondaga Sachems awaited them with a concourse of people. The Sachems then formed themselves in a circle, an Onondaga Sachem, acting by appointment as master of the ceremonies, occupying the side towards the rising sun. At a signal they marched round the circle moving by the North. The rim of the circle toward the North called „the cold side“, that on the west „the side toward the setting sun“, that on the south „the side of the high sun“, that on the east „the side of the rising sun“. After marching 3 times around on the circle single file, the head and foot of the column being joined, the leader stopped on the rising sun side, and deposed before him his bundle of fagots. In this followed by the others. ⦗So formed an inner circle of faggots.⦘ After this each sachem spread his skin robe in the same order and sat down upon it, crosslegged, behind his bundle of fagots, with his assistant Sachem standing behind him. After a moment’s pause, the master of the ceremonies arose, drew from his pouch 2 pieces of dry wood and a piece of punk (Zündschwamm) with which he proceeded to strike fire by friction. When fire obtained, he stepped within the circle u. set fire to his own bundle, and then to each of the others. When diese well ignited, and at a signal from the master of the ceremonies, the sachems arose and marched 3 times around the Burning Circle, going as before by the North. Each turned v. time to time as he walked so as to expose all sides of his person … then reseated themselves each upon his own robe. Master of the ceremonies again rising to his feet, filled and lighted the pipe of peace from his own fire; drew 3 whiffs, the first toward the Zenith (bedeutet thanks to the Great Spirit for his preservation during the last year u. for being permitted to be present at this council); the second toward the ground (means thanks to his Mother, the Earth, for the various productions which had ministered to his sustenance); third toward the Sun (means thanks for his never-failing light, ever shining upon all.) Then he passed the pipe to the first upon his right toward the North, who repeated the same ceremonies u. so on around the burning circle. The ceremony of smoking the calumet bedeutete auch mutual pledging of their faith, friendship, honour. Mit dieser ceremony opening of the council completed u. dieser darauf declared ready for business.

Auf den opposite sides des Councilfire, sassen auf der einen: Mohawk, Onondaga u. Seneca Sachems; ihre tribes, wenn in council, were brother tribes to each other u. father tribes to the two other; they constituted, by extension of the principle, a phratry of tribes u. sachems.

On the opposite side of the fire the Oneida u. Cayuga u. später die Tuscarora Sachems; a second tribal phratry; brother tribes to each other, and son tribes of those opposite.

Die Oneidas, being a subdivision of the Mohawks, u. die Cayugas a subdivision of the Onondagas or Senecas, they were in reality younger tribes, hence their relations of juniors u. seniors u. application of the phratric principle.

When the tribes named in Council, the Mohawks named first, their tribal epithet: „The Shield“; next the Onondagas, under epithet of „Name-Bearer“, because they had been appointed to select and name the 50 original sachems. Nach der tradition die Onondagas deputed a wise-man to visit the territories of the tribes and select and name the new Sachems je nach circumstances: which explains the unequal distribution of office among the several gentes; next in order the Senecas, the „Door Keeper“; were made perpetual keepers of the Western door of the Long House; dann die Oneidas, the „Great Tree“ u. die Cayugas the „Great Pipe“; the Tuscaroras named last ohne distinguishing epithet.

Der Foreign tribe represented at the Council durch a delegation of wise-men u. chiefs who bore their proposition and presented it in person. Nach ihrer introduction, macht einer der Sachem short address, thanking the Great Spirit etc, dann informing the delegates dass council prepared to hear them. One of the delegates submits the propostion in form, sustains it by arguments; nach conclusion der address, the delegation withdraws vom Council to wait at a distance. Nun debate unter den Sachems; when decision come to, a speaker appointed to communicate the answer of the council zu deren Empfang the delegation were recalled. Als speaker des Council meist chosen einer von tribe, der had convened the council; macht förmlichen speech reviewing the whole question, theilt dann rejection (mit reasons) mit od. acceptance (völlige od. in part). Im letzteren Fall belts of wampum exchanged as evidence of the terms of the agreement.

„This belt preserves my words“, common remark of an Iroquois chief in council, then delivering the belt as evidence of what he had said. Several such belts given in the course of a negotiation to the opposite party. In the reply of the latter a belt would be returned for each proposition accepted.

Unanimity of the Sachems required upon all public questions u. essential to the validity of every public act; it was a fundamental law der confederacy; kannten nichts von majorities u. minorities in the action of councils; zur Erreichung der votes die oben angeführten classes. Kein Sachem allowed to express an opinion in council in the nature of a vote bevor er nicht had first agreed with the sachem or sachems seiner class upon the opinion to be expressed, and had been appointed to act as a speaker for the class. So die 8 Seneca Sachems in 4 classes konnten nur 4 opinions haben, u. die 10 Cayuga Sachems, in selber number of classes, konnten auch nur 4 opinions haben. Dann a cross-consultation zwischen den 4 Sachems appointed to speak for the 4 classes; when they had agreed, they designated one of their number to express their resulting opinion, which was the answer of their tribe. Wenn so die Sachems jedes der tribes separately had become of one mind, their several opinions compared u. if they agreed the decision of the council was made. The 5 persons appointed to express the decision of the 5 tribes erklärt vielleicht die functions u. appointment der 6 electors in der Aztec confederacy. … War any sachem obdurate u. unreasonable, influences brought to bear upon him, which he could not well resist. Seltner Fall auch.

Beim Beginn der Amerik. Revolution konnten die Iroquois, wegen want of unanimity im confederate council, nicht übereinstimmen über Kriegserklärung gegen die neue American confederacy. Theil der Oneida Sachems refused. As neutrality was impossible with the Mohawks u. die Senecas were determined to fight, it was resolved that each tribe might engage in the war upon its own responsibility, or remain neutral. The war against the Eries, the Neutral Nation and Susquehannocks, u. die several wars gegen French, were resolved upon in General Council. »Our colonial records largely filled mit negociations mit der Iroquois Confederacy.«

The induction of new Sachems into office great interest to the people u. to the Sachems selbst. Für die ceremony of raising sachems the general council primarily instituted; in this capacity called Mourning Council, weil had to lament the deceased u. to install his successor. Bei death of a Sachem, der tribe der ihn had lost had power to summon a general council, name time u. place for meeting; a herald sent out with a belt of wampum, meist the official belt of the deceased sachem which conveyed the message: „the name (der des defunct) calls for a council“, announced also the day u. place of convention. Mourning Council mit den festivities that followed Hauptattraction für die Iroquois, flocking to attendance from the most distant localities with zeal u. enthusiasm. Bei der lamentation (womit proceedings opened), a procession formed, and the lament was chanted in verse, with responses, by the united tribes, as they marched vom place of reception to the place of council. Dies 1st day’s proceeding; 2nd day: installation ceremony, lasts meist bis 4th day.

u. a., for die instruction des newly raised sachem, the ancient wampum belts, into which, nach their expression, the structure and principles of the confederacy „had been talked“, were produced, u. read, i.e. interpreted. A wise-man, not necessarily one of the Sachems, took these belts one after the other u. walking to and fro between the 2 divisions of sachems, read from them the facts which they recorded.

Nach der Indian conception, these belts can tell, by means of an interpreter, the exact rule, provision or transaction talked into them at the time, and of which they were the exclusive record. A strand ⦗Germ. strahn, one of the twists of which a rope is composed, Strähn = hank, skein (Gebind)⦘ of wampum bestehend aus strings von purple u. white shell beads, or a belt woven with figures formed by beads of different colour, operated on the principle of associating a particular fact with a particular string; thus giving a serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory. These strands u. belts of wampum were the only visible records der Iroquois; aber they required trained interpreters who could draw from their strings and figures the records locked up in their remembrance. One of the Onondaga Sachems was made „Keeper of the Wampum“, und 2 aids were raised up with him who were required to be versed in its interpretation as well as the sachem. The interpretation dieser several belts u. strings brought out, in the address of the wise-man, a connected account of the occurrences at the formation of the confederacy. The tradition was repeated in full, and fortified in its essential parts by reference to the records contained in diesen belts. Thus the council to raise up sachems became a teaching council which maintained in perpetual freshness in the minds of the Iroquois the structure and principles der confederacy, as well as the history of its formation. These proceedings occupied the council until noon each day; the afternoon being devoted to games u. amusements. At twilight each day a dinner in common served to the entire body in attendance; consisted of soup and boiled meat cooked near the council-house, and served directly from the kettle in wooden bowls, trays and ladles. Grace was said before the feast commenced; it was a prolonged exclamation by a single person on a high shrill note, falling down in cadences into stillness, followed by a response in chorus by the people. The evenings devoted to dance. After these ceremonies u. festivities – for several days – their sachems inducted into office.

Ob das right des Council to »invest« Sachems nur functional? Jedenfalls no case of rejection mentioned. Obgleich in form an oligarchy, this ruling body of sachems a representative democracy of the archaic type. Right of gentes to elect u. depose sachems u. chiefs, right of the people to be heard in council durch orators of their election, and the voluntary system in the military service. In dieser lower u. middle ethnical period democratic principles were the vital element of gentile society.

Ho-yar-na-go’-war, the Iroquois name for a sachem, means: „a counselor of the people“; analog bei den members of the Grecian council of chiefs; so

Chief of the second grade heisst: „Ha-sa-no-wä’-na“, „an elevated name“, indicates appreciation der Barbaren of the ordinary motives for personal ambition. Fast ohne Ausnahme die celebrated orators, wise-men and war-chiefs der Iroquois – chiefs of the 2nd grade. Office of chief bestowed for merit, fell necessarily auf die ablest men (diese also excluded von General Council, aus dem so das ambitious element entfernt). In American (European) annals fast nur berührt solche chiefs; none of the long lines of sachems ausser Logan (einer der Cayuga sachems), Handsome Lake (Seneca sachem, Gründer der New Religion der Iroquois) u. at a recent day Ely S. Parker (Seneca sachem).

In der confederacy of tribes taucht zuerst auf the office of General (Hos-gä-ä-geh’-da-go-wä = „Great War Soldier“). Enstanden nun cases, when the several tribes in their confederate capacity would be engaged in war. So want felt for a general commander to direct the movements of the united bands. Die introduction of this office as a permanent feature verhängnisvoll event in human history. Beginn der differentiation of the military von der civil power, which, when completed, changed essentially the external manifestation of the government. Aber gentilism arrested usurpation; government of one power became nun one of 2; the functions of the gvt became in [course of] time co-ordinated between the two. This new office – the germ of a chief executive magistrate; out of the general came the king etc. The office sprang v. den military necessities of society. –

The Great War Soldier der Iroquois (lower status of barbarism), der Teuctli der Aztecs (middle status of barbarism), der βασιλεύς der Griechen u. rex der Römer (Upper Status of barbarism) – three successive ethnic epochs – selbes office, das eines Generals in a military democracy. Bei Iroquois, Aztecs, Romans das office elective u. confirmative durch a constituency; wahrscheinlich auch bei den Griechen während der traditionary period; auf nichts gegründet die Behauptung, dass es erblich bei den homerischen tribes v. father to son; widerspricht dem groundwork of gentile institutions. Wenn in zahlreichen Fällen das office passed von father to son, dies might have suggested the inference – unbegründete – of hereditary succession, now adopted as historically true. – Hereditary succession, when first established, came from force (usurpation), nicht by the free consent of the people.

Nach Stiftung der Iroquois confederacy two permanent war-chiefships created u. named, both assigned to the Seneca tribe. One of them – Ta-wan’-ne-ars, signifying needlebreaker – made hereditary in the Wolf gens u. the other – So-no’-so-wä = »great oyster shell« – in the Turtle gens. Senecas erhielten beide offices, weil the greater danger of attack at the west end of their territories; were elected in same manner as the sachems, »raised up« by a general council, u. both equal in rank u. power. As general commanders they had charge of the military affairs of the confederacy u. the command of its joint forces when united in general expedition. Governor Blacksnake, recently deceased, held the office first named, showing that the succession has been regularly maintained. 2 gewählt to prevent the domination of a single man even in their military affairs; so die 2 Roman consuls, nach Abschaffung des rex.

The Iroquois conquered other tribes and held them in subjection, z. B. die Delawares, aber die letztern blieben unter dem government of their own chiefs, and added nothing to the strength of the confederacy. It was impossible in this state of society to unite tribes under one government who spoke different languages, and to hold conquered tribes under tribute with any benefit but the tribute.

The Iroquois brain approached in volume the Aryan average; eloquent in oratory, vindictive in war, indomitable in perseverance, they have gained a place in history. They had urged the Eries and the Neutral Nation to become members of their confederacy, and for their refusal expelled them from their borders. In the competition between English u. French for supremacy in North America – as the 2 were nearly equal in power and resources during the first century of colonization – the French Scheitern in no small degree to be ascribed to the Iroquois.

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Pt. II. Ch. VI Gentes in other tribes of the Ganowánian Family.

Bei Entdeckung von America in several regions, the aborigines found in 2 dissimilar conditions: 1) The Village Indians, abhängig fast ganz upon horticulture für Subsistence; such the tribes in this status in New Mexico, Mexico, Central America u. auf dem Plateau der Andes; 2) die non-horticultural Indians, depending upon fish, bread-roots u. game; such those of the Valley of Columbia, of the Hudson Bay Territory, parts [of] Canada etc. Zwischen diesen tribes, u. connecting the extremes by insensible gradations, 3) the partially Village u. partially Horticultural Indians: such: Iroquois, the New England u. Virginia Indians, the Creeks, Choctas, Cherokees, Minnitarees, Dakotas, Shawnees. Weapons, arts, usages, inventions, dances, house architecture, form of government, plan of life, all bear impress of a common mind; über wide range zeigen sie the successive stages of development of the same original conceptions.

Es ward nun (v. European u. American writers) erst overrated the comparative advance der Village Indians, underrated das der non-horticultural, hence betrachtet als 2 different races. Aber Anzahl der non-horticultural tribes were in Upper State of Savagery; the intermediate tribes in the Lower Status of barbarism, die village Indians in Middle Status of Barbarism. Die evidence of their unity of origin now so accumulated that settled; Eskimos belong to a different family.

In den »Systems of consanguinity etc« Morgan presented selbiges von 70 American Indian tribes; selbes system nachgewiesen bei ihnen mit evidence of its derivation von common source; er nannte sie allesammt die Ganowánian Family („Family of the Bow and Arrow“.)

Giebt nun mit Bezug auf die Gentes der different tribes dieser Ganowánian Family: (nach Nomenclatur in „Systems of Consanguinity“)

I) Hodenosaunian Tribes.

Hawk now extinct; [the Wyandotes have] noch 5 gentes in common mit Iroquois, names nun changed.

Descent in female line; marriage in gens prohibited; office of sachem (civil chief) hereditary in gens, elective among its members; office of Sachem passes von brother to brother or v. uncle to nephew; that of war-chief bestowed for merit, haben 7 sachems u. 7 war-chiefs; property hereditary in gens, children inherit their mother’s (nothing from father) effects, whether married or unmarried; each gens has power to depose and elect its chiefs.

The Eries, Neutral Nation, Nottoways, Tutelos u. Susquehannocks, now extinct, or absorbed in other tribes, belong to same lineage.

II) Dakotian Tribes.

Zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung in zahlreiche groups zerfallen, ebenso ihre Sprache in viele Dialekte; aber der Hauptsache nach bewohnten sie continuous areas; occupied the head waters des Mississippi u. beide banks des Missouri für mehr als 1000 miles in extent; Iroquois u. their cognate tribes wahrscheinlich offshoot of this stem.

1. Dakotas or Sioux; jetzt about 12 independent tribes; gentile organization in decadence, aber their next congeners, the Missouri tribes possess it; have societies named after animals analogous to gentes, aber letztre jetzt verschwunden. Carver, Travels in North America Philad. ed. 1796, p. 164, war bei ihnen 1767; he visited the Eastern Dakotas on the Mississippi. Giebt exacte tribe u. gentes Beschreibung derselben, stimmt auch ganz mit sachem u. war-chief etc. Morgan besuchte Eastern Dakotas 1861, Western 1862, also beide fast a century nach Carver, fand nichts mehr v. gentes; a change of life den Dakotas aufgezwungen im Interval when they were forced upon the plains u. fell into nomadic bands.

2. Missouri tribes.

Hier descent in male line, the children belonging to the gens of the father; office of Sachem hereditary in gens, choice elective, but sons of a deceased Sachem eligible; change vom archaic [form] wahrscheinlich recent, da descent noch in female line bei 2 der 8 Missouri tribes, Otoes u. Missouris u. unter den Mandans (Upper Missouri tribes). Property hereditary in the gens, worin intermarriage prohibited.

Die wildest der American aborigines; intelligent; 1869 the Kaws, much reduced, about 700, giebt 50 per gens. Osages u. Quappas (tribes) hat Morgan nicht besucht. – Home country aller dieser tribes along the Missouri and its tributaries, von Mündung des Big Sioux to the Mississippi u. down the west bank des letzteren bis Arkansas river. Alle speak closely related dialects of the Dakotian stock language.

When first discovered tribe resided near the lake of same name in Wisconsin; offshoot of the Dakotian stem, folgten im track der Iroquois nach valley of St. Lawrence, progress arrested durch die Algonkin tribes zwischen lake Huron u. Lake Superior. Ihre nächste affiliation mit den Missouri tribes.

Descent, inheritance, marriage, wie bei Punkas. Sonderbar dass so many tribes of this stock changed female [to] male line of descent, da, wenn entdeckt, property bei ihnen nur slightly über germinating stage. Wahrscheinlich all dies recent under American u. missionary influence. Carver fand bei den Winnebagoes traces of descent in the female line in 1787. (Sieh »Travels«, l.c. p. 166) Er sagt: „Some nations, when the dignity is hereditary, limit the succession to the female line. On the death of a chief his sister’s son succeeds [him] in preference to his own son; and if he happens to have no sister the nearest female relation assumes the dignity. This accounts for a woman being at the head of the Winnebago family, which, before I was acquainted with their laws, appeared strange to me.“ 1869 the Winnebagoes numbered 1400, per gens average of 150 persons.

4. Upper Missouri Tribes.

In intelligence u. arts of life the Mandans ahead of all their kindred tribes, dafür probably indebted to the Minnitarees.

Descent in female line, office and property hereditary in the gens, worin intermarriage prohibited. Zeigt, dass originally female descent im Dakotian stock.

2. Minnitarees. This tribe u. the Upsarokas or Crows subdivisions of an original people; doubtful members of this branch of the Ganowánian family, from number of words common mit denen der Missouri u. Dakota tribes placed with them. They carried horticulture, the timber-framed house u. a peculiar religious system into this area which they taught the Mandans; können sein descendants der Mound-Builders.

Minnitarees u. Mandans live now in the same village; among the finest specimens of red man now in North America.

If a person to whom any article of property had been presented died with it in his possession, and the donor was dead, it reverted to the gens of the latter. Property made or acquired by a wife descended after her death to her children, that of a husband to his gentile kindred. If a person made a present to a friend and died the latter must perform some recognized act of mourning, such as cutting off the joint of a finger at the funeral or surrender the property to the gens of the donor. This act of mourning very common unter den Crows, auch as a religious offering when they hold a „Medicine lodge,“ a great religious ceremonial.

The Crows haben einen Ehegebrauch, den Morgan bei mindestens 40 andern Indian tribes gefunden: when a man marries the eldest daughter in a family he is entitled to all her sisters when they attain maturity. (Survival of custom of punalua)

Polygamy allowed generally by usage unter allen American aborigines, never prevalent in irgend bedeutendem Mass wegen inability of persons to support more than one family.

III) Gulf Tribes.

1. Muscokees or Creeks. The Creek Confederacy consisted of 6 tribes, viz:

Descent unter den Creeks in female line, sachemship u. property of deceased persons hereditary in gens, worin intermarriage prohibited; die andren tribes hatten auch gentile organization; jetzt die Creeks partially civilized, political system, in a few years traces of their gentile organization will have desappeared.

1869 Creeks numbered about 15,000, average von 550 persons to gens.

2. Choctas. Bei ihnen each phratry named; 2 phratries mit je 4 gentes, wie bei Iroquois.

Gentes of same phratry could not intermarry, but jede mit gentes der other; zeigt, dass wie bei Iroquois, the Choctas commenced mit 2 gentes, jede davon nachher subdivided into 4. Descent in female line, Property and Sachemship hereditary in gens.

1869 – some 12,000, gives average per gens = 1500. 1820 residirten sie noch in their ancient territory, east of Mississippi, immigrated dann in Indian territory. – Nach Chocta usages property after the death of a man distributed unter his brothers and sisters and the children of his sisters, nicht under his children; could give his property to his children in his lifetime, then they could hold it against his gens. Viele Indian tribes haben jezt considerable property in domestic animals, houses u. lands, owned by individuals; unter ihnen common practice to give it to their children during their life-time. Im Mass wie property wuchs, disinheritance of children began to arouse opposition to gentile inheritance u. in some of the tribes, u. a. bei den Choctas old usage abolished a few years since, right of inheritance exclusively vested in the children of defunct owner. Dies came, however, durch substitution of a political system in the place of gentile system, an elective council u. magistracy substituted to the old gvt by chiefs. Under previous usages wife inherited nothing from her husband and vice versa, nor he from her; but the wife’s effects divided among her children u. in default of them her sisters.

3. Chickasas. 2 phratries, Iste 4 gentes, IId 8.

Descent in female line, intermarriage in gens prohibited, sachemship and property hereditary in gens.

1869 they numbered 5000, average per gens about 400.

4. Cherokees, ursprünglich 10 gentes, wovon Acorn u. Bird now extinct.

1869: 14,000, average per gens =1750. Jezt Cherokees u. Ojibwas exceed all the remaining Indians in U. St. in Anzahl of persons speaking the same dialect. Nicht wahrscheinlich, dass jemals in any part of North America 100,000 spoke same dialect; dies nur bei Aztecs, Tezcucans u. Tlascalans (tribes) u. selbst dies schwer zu beweisen upon Spanish evidence. The unusual numbers of Creeks u. Cherokees due to possession of domestic animals u. well-developed field agriculture; now partially civilized, having substituted an elective constitutional gvt to the ancient gentes, unter dessen influence diese in raschem Verfall.

5. Seminoles: of Creek descent; said to be organized into gentes.

IV. Pawnee tribes.

Die Pawnees sollen nach Aussage des missionary Rev. Samuel Allis in 6 gentes organisirt sein: Bear, Beaver, Eagle, Buffalo, Deer, Owl.

If so, auch die Arickarees (deren village near dem der Minnitarees u. die die next congeners der Pawnees), die Huecos u. 2 od. 3 andre small tribes residing on the Canadian river: haben alle stets west von Missouri gelebt u. sprechen an independent stocklanguage.

V. Algonkin Tribes.

Bei Entdeckung dieses great stock der American aborigines nahmen sie ein Area v. Rocky Mountains bis Hudson’s Bay südlich vom Siskatchewun, u. dann östlich zum Atlantic, einschliesslich beider Ufer des Lake Superior except at its head u. beide Küsten des St. Lawrence, südlich von Lake Champlain. Südlich extended their area entlang der atlantischen Küste bis Nord Carolina u. down the East Bank des Mississippi in Wisconsin, Illinois bis Kentucky. Innerhalb der östlichen Section dieser immense region waren die Iroquois u. their affiliated tribes an intrusive people, einzige Conkurrenten der Algonkins innerhalb der boundaries dieser Section.

a) Gitchigamian Tribes (From the Ojibwa, gĭ-tchi’ (great) u. gä’-me (lake), the aboriginal name of Lake Superior u. other great lakes).

1. Ojibwas. Sprechen selben Dialekt, organized in gentes, wovon Morgan 23 gefischt. In ihrem dialect the symbol or device of gens heisst totem (ebenso oft pronounced dodaim); z. B. a Wolf das totem der Wolf Gens. Hence hat Schoolcraft („History of Indian Tribes“) die gentile organization „totemic organization“ getauft.

Descent in male line, children belonging to their father’s gens. Ursprünglich female. Denn 1) die Delawares, anerkannt durch alle Algonkin tribes als einer der ältesten, von allen „Grandfathers“ genannt, haben noch descent in female line, wie ditto etsliche andre Algonkin tribes; 2) Evidence, dass noch 1840 descent in the female line with respect to the Sachem. 3) American u. missionary influence; den Missionaries schien Erbfolge die den Sohn enterbte, ungerecht. – Wo wir das Wort »hereditary« anwenden, z. B. für nephew (seiner Schwester Sohn) eines Sachem, folgt nicht, dass letzterer »hereditary right« hatte im modernen Sinn, sondern dass er in line of succession (in der gens) u. his election substantially secured.

Property u. office hereditary in gens (worin intermarriage verboten); jetzt bekommen Kinder das meiste to the exclusion ihrer gentile kindred. Property u. effects der mother pass to the children, in their default to her sisters, own u. collateral. Ein Sohn kann jetzt seinem Vater folgen in office; wo several sons choice determined by election; the gentiles können nicht nur elect, sondern auch depose.

Jetzt Ojibwas some 16,000; gibt average für gens about 700.

2. Potawattamies. 15 Gentes. Alles andre wie bei Ojibwas. Die gentes sind:

3. Ojibwas, Otawas, u. Potawattamies subdivisions of an original tribe; when first known – confederated.

4. Crees; when discovered held northwest shore of Lake Superior, spread v. da zu Hudson’s Bay u. dann westlich to the Red River of the North; occupy später the region of the Siskatchewun, ihre gentile organization lost; nearest related to the Ojibwas, gleichen ihnen closely in manners, customs, personal appearance.

b) Mississippi Tribes. Western Algonkins, occupied eastern banks of Mississippi in Wisconsin u. Illinois u. südlich bis Kentucky.

Ihre immediate congeners – Weas, Piankeshaws, Peorias, Kaskaskias early known unter collective name of Illinois, jetzt wenige, haben ihre alte Lebensart verlassen für settled agricultural life.

Die Miamis declining in numbers, changed condition, gentile organization quickly disappearing. When decline commenced, descent in male line, sonst wie vorher.

2. Shawnees (highly advanced); haben noch ihre gentes, obgleich sie substituted der gentile – civil organization. Ihre gentes erhalten sie für genealogical u. social purposes, sind: ⦗Shawnees formerly worshipped a female deity – Go-gome-tha-mä’ (our Grandmother.)⦘

Descent etc wie bei Miamis. 1869 ihrer nur 700, about 50 per gens; früher 3–4000, was above the average of American Indian tribes.

Shawnees hatten a custom – wie auch die Miamis, ditto Sauks u. Foxes – of naming children in gens v. Vater od. Mutter od. any other gens under certain restrictions. Unter den Iroquois, sieh oben, hatte jede gens its own special names für persons which no other gens had a right to use; in every tribe daher the name (special, personal) indicated the gens. So unter den Sauks u. Foxes „Long Horn“ is a name belonging to the Deer Gens; Black Wolf to the Wolf gens; in the Eagle gens the following are special names: Ká-po-nä („Eagle drawing his nest“); Ja-ka-kwä-pe („Eagle sitting with his head up“); Pe-ǎ-tä-na-kä-hok („Eagle flying over a limb“).

Unter den Shawnees these names carried mit sich the rights of the gens to which they belonged, so that the name determined the gens of the person. Der Sachem musste in allen Fällen zu seiner gens gehören; wahrscheinlich der change von female to male line commenced thus: in erster Instanz to enable a son (der zur gens der Mutter gehörte) to succeed to his father, u. zweitens, to enable children to inherit property from their father. Empfing ein Sohn den Namen seines Vaters, so konnte er ihm in office nachfolgen, subject to election. Aber der father had no control over the question; it was left by the gens to certain persons, mostly matrons to be consulted when children were to be named, with power to determine the name to be given. Durch dies arrangement between the Shawnee gentes these persons had this power, could so carry the person into the gens to which the name belonged. ⦗Eingeborne casuistry of man to change things by changing names! u. Schlupfwinkel zu finden, um innerhalb der Tradition die Tradition zu durchbrechen, wo actual interest powerful motive dazu gab!⦘ Traces der archaic rule of descent existiren unter den Shawnees.

3. Sauks u. Foxes: diese tribes consolidated into one; alles andre wie Miamis; 1869 nur 700, about 50 per gens. Noch 14 gentes.

4) Menominees u. Kikapoos; diese tribes independent of each other, organized in gentes; property hereditary in the gens, but restricted to the agnatic kin in the female line.

c) Rocky Mountain tribes. 1) Blood Blackfeet u. 2) Piegan Blackfeet. Jeder dieser 2 tribes in gentes getheilt, erster in 5, 2ter in 8. Namentlich unter den letzteren Namen (von gens), die mehr nach Bands als gentes riechen, wie Web Fat, Inside Fat, Conjurers, Never Laugh, Starving, Half Dead Meat; aber nicknames for gentes superseded in some cases the original names. Descent in male line, intermarriage in gens prohibited.

d) Atlantic Tribes.

1. Delawares, one of the oldest of the Algonkin Tribes; when discovered, their home country region around and North of Delaware Bay; haben 3 Gentes: 1) Wolf; 2) Turtle. 3) Turkey, aber jede dieser gentes a phratry, da Wolf getheilt in 12 subgentes, each having some of the attributes of a gens; Turtle in 10 subgentes (2 fernere extinct ), Turkey in 12 subgentes. The names der subgentes are personal, u. meist, wenn nicht alle, female; sind betrachtet by the Delawares selbst (jezt at the Delaware Reservation in Kansas) betrachtet als their several eponymous ancestors. Dies zeigt zweierlei: 1) wie die ursprünglichen Thiernamen der gentes Platzmachen können Personennamen; ⦗die Namen der ursprünglichen Gentes bleiben hier Wolf, Turtle, Turkey; aber die Segmentation der gens in subgentes nach den specific (personal) Namen der Stammmütter der Theile (Unterabtheilungen der Gensfamilien); so werden die ursprünglichen Thiernamen der gentes Namen von Phratrien u. die der subgentes von Personen (Mütter), ohne dass dieser change (wie bei male descent der Antiken) anything mit heroworship (als Urahnen) zu thun hätte⦘ Zweitens: zeigt sich hier natural growth von Phratry durch segmentation einer gens in several subgentes.

Descent bei den Delawares in female line u. alles andre archaisch. (So die 3 original gentes could not intermarry innerhalb selber gens; in recent years the prohibition limited to the subgentes; so in Wolf tribe z. B. die of same name cannot intermarry, wohl aber die of different names.) Auch die practice of naming children into the gens of their father aufgekommen bei den Delawares, has introduced the same confusion of descents wie unter Shawnees u. Miamis. ⦗ Dies scheint der natürliche Uebergang von female to male line: der confusion konnte nur durch den change Ende gemacht werden.⦘ American civilization u. intercourse gave shock to the institutions der Indians, ihr ethnic life so gradually breaking down.

Weil descent in female line, bei den Delawares wie Iroquois, office of Sachem v. Bruder to Bruder od. von (mütterlichem) Onkel zu Nephew (Schwesterssohn) .

2. Munsees; offshoot der Delawares, haben dieselben gentes: Wolf, Turtle, Turkey; female descent etc.

3. Mohegans; form part of the New England Indians, south of river Kennebeck, die all closely related in language, could understand each other’s dialects. Mohegans haben, wie Delawares u. Munsees – the Wolf, Turtle u. Turkey, each of which composed of a number of gentes, also break up v. original gens into several which remain united in a phratry. Die phratries bei den Mohegans cover the gentes of each u. die phratries must be stated, to explain the classification of the gentes. Descent in female line. ⦗auch so unter Pequots u. Narragansetts⦘

4. Abenakis (bedeutet „rising sun [people]“). Dies tribe more closely connected mit den Micmacs als den New England Indians south of the Kennebeck. 14 gentes, worin verschiedene the same as among the Ojibwas. Descent now in male line, prohibition of intermarriage in gens now much weakened, office of Sachem hereditary in gens.

VI) Athapasco-Apache Tribes.

Ob die Athapascans des Hudson’s Bay Territory u. die Apaches of New Mexico, die subdivisions eines original stock sind, organized in gentes, nicht definitely ascertained. – Hare and Red Knife Athapascans (in Hudson’s Bay Territ.) – Slave Lake Athapascans in ditto.

Die Kutchin (Louchoux) der Yukon river Region ⦗Northwest Territorium, British Northamerica, südlich von den ex-russischen Küstenniederlassungen⦘ sind Athapascans u. bei ihnen (nach Brief of late George Gibbs an Morgan): Unter den Kutchin „3 grades or classes of society (soll heissen totem, die aber in rank verschieden sein mögen) ⦗u. in der Art, namentlich wo zum gens princip Eroberung hinzukömmt, können nach u. nach die gentes zur Kastenbildung Anlass geben? wo dann das Verbot der intermarriage zwischen verschiednen gentes ganz umkehrt die archaische rule der intermarriage innerhalb the same gens⦘ a man does not marry into his own class, but takes a wife from some other; and that a chief from the highest may marry with a woman of the lowest without loss of caste. ⦗Den Begriff der caste trägt der Briefschreiber hinein u. interpretirt sich so, dass ein Mann nicht in seiner eignen gens heirathen kann, wohl aber in gens einer andren brother- od. cousin phratry; zeigt aber, dass sobald difference of rank zwischen den blutsverwandten gentes entsteht, dieses in conflict mit dem gentilen Princip geräth u. die gens in ihr Gegentheil, caste versteinern kann.⦘ The children belong to the grade of the mother. ⦗welches also der Rangunterschied zwischen gentes ? Brüder u. Schwestern aller gentes finden sich in gentes jedes Rangs. Das Verwandtschaftsband lässt keine fixirte Aristokratie aufkommen, fraternity bleibt u. Gleichheitsgefühl.⦘ The members of the same grade in the different tribes do not war with each other.“

Kolushes der Nordwestküste, linguistisch closely related mit den Athapascans, haben gensorganization; Gentes haben Thiernamen, descent in female line; right of succession in female line von uncle to nephew, except the principal Chief, who is generally the most powerful of the family.

VII) Indian tribes of the Northwest Coast.

In einigen dieser tribes – ausser den Kolushes – prevails gentile organization. See: Dall: „Alaska and its resources“, u. namentlich Bancroft: Pacific States, I, 109.

VIII) Salish, Sahaptin u. Kootenay Tribes.

Dies die principal stocks der tribes des Valley of the Columbia; ohne gentile organization. Dies war der initial point der migrations der Ganowánian family, spreading over both divisions des Continent; their possessors besassen daher gentile organization, fell into decay and finally disappeared.

IX) Shoshonee Tribes.

Die Comanches of Texas, zusammen mit Ute tribes, Bonnaks (Panacks?), Shoshonees u. some other tribes gehören dazu.

1859 (berichtet by Mathew Walker, a Wyandote halfblood, lived among the Comanches) hatten die Comanches 6 gentes:

Da die Comanches gentes, so presumption, dass auch die other tribes dieses stock.

Hiermit schliesst Morgan ab mit den Indians North of New Mexico. Ihre grössere Anzahl zur Zeit der europ. Entdeckung in Lower Status of Barbarism, der remainder in Upper Status of Savagery. Organization into gentes u. descent in female line erscheinen ursprünglich universal. Ihr system purely social; unit die gens, phratry, tribe, confederacy the remaining members der organic series. Selbes bei Aryan u. Semitic tribes, when emerging from barbarism; also system universal in ancient society; inferentially had a common origin – the punaluan group, giving origin to the gentes; all – the Aryan, Semitic, Uralian, Turanian u. Ganowánian families of mankind point to a common punaluan stock – with organization of gentes engrafted upon it – of which all were derived, and finally differentiated into families.

X) Village Indians.

1. Moqui Pueblo Indians; still in possession of their ancient communal houses, 7 in number, near the Little Colorado in Arizona, once a part of New Mexico; living under their ancient institutions, represent type of Indian life von Zuñi (pueblo) (Neu Mexico) bis Cuzco (North Peru). Zuñi, Acoma, Taos u. several other New Mexico pueblos haben selbe Struktur, worin gefunden von Coronado (1540–1542). Bisher nichts Nennenswertes studirt über ihre innere Organization.

Die Moquis organized in gentes: (9), as follows:

Dr. Ten Broeck, Assistant Surgeon, U.S.A., lieferte dem Mr. Schoolcraft die Moqui Legend über origin of their villages. „Ihre Grandmother from her home in the West 9 races of men, first the Deer [race] u. so weiter die übrigen gentes. (cf. über die Grandmother der Shawnees, oben p. 57) Nachdem sie selbe gepflanzt on the spot wo nun die villages, verwandelte sie selbe (nämlich Deer, Sand, Rain, Bear etc) in men u. diese built up the different pueblos; u. die distinction of races, Deer race, Sand race etc is still kept up. They believe in Metempsychosis u. say, nach Tod werden sie rückverwandelt werden in bears, deers etc.; government hereditary, aber nicht necessarily to the son of the incumbent; for if they prefer any other blood relative, he is chosen.“ Here also gentile organization found in lower state of barbarism, aber von diesem Punkt an, sowohl im remainder des North als im ganzen Süden keine definite information, except in regard to the Lagunas. Aber still traces left in the Early Spanish writers u. direct knowledge of it in a few later writers.

There are current traditions in many gentes, wie bei den Moquis, von transformation ihrer ersten progenitors aus dem animal, or inanimate object, which became the symbol of the gens (totem) , into men and women (so bei der Crane gens unter den Ojibwas). Ferner Anzahl von tribes, die abstain from eating the animal, whose name they bear, doch dies far from universal.

2. Lagunas. (New Mexico) Aus Address von Rev. Samuel Gorman an die „Historical Society of New Mexico“ 1860:

„Each town is classed into tribes or families (read gentes), and each of these groups named after some animal, bird, herb, timber, planet, or one of the 4 elements. Im pueblo of Laguna, mit about 1000 inhabitants, 17 dieser tribes; some are called deer, some rattlesnake, some corn, some wolf, some water etc. Children of same tribe as their mother. And, according to ancient custom, 2 persons of the same tribe are forbidden to marry; recently diese Gewohnheit nicht mehr so rigorös beobachtet wie anciently. Their land is held in common, but after a person cultivates a lot, he has a personal claim to it, which he can sell to any one of the same community; or else when he dies it belongs to his widow or daughter; or, if he were a single man, it remains in his father’s family.“ That wife and daughter inherit from the father is doubtful.

3. Aztecs, Tezcucans u. Tlacopans, ditto the remaining Nahuatlac tribes in Mexico – folgendes chapter.

4. Mayas of Yucatan.

Herrera: „General History of America“ spricht oft von „kindred“ mit regard to the tribes in Mexico, Central America u. South America, dass gens daraus hervorguckt. Er u. die andern early Spanish observers noticed that large numbers of persons were bound together by the bond of kin u. mention daher the group als „kindred“, weiter forschten sie nicht.

Herrera sagt u. a. von den Mayas (Lond. ed. 1726. Stevens transl. III, 299): „they were wont to observe their pedigrees very much, and therefore (!) thought themselves all related and were helpful to one another … They did not marry mothers, or sisters-in-law, nor any that bore the same name as their father, which was looked upon as unlawful.“ The pedigree of an Indian under their system of consanguinity could have no significance apart from a gens. Sagt Tylor in his: „Early History of Mankind“: „The analogy of the North American Indian custom is therefore with that of the Australian in making clanship on the female side a bar to marriage, but if we go further down into Central America, the reverse custom, as in China, makes its appearance. Diego de Landa says of the people of Yucatan that no one took a wife of his name, on the father’s side, for this was a very vile thing among them; but they might marry cousins german on the mother’s side.“

XI. The South American Indian Tribes.

Traces of the gens found in all parts of South America, as well as the actual presence of the Ganowánian system of consanguinity, aber the subject nicht fully investigated.

Sprechend von den numerous tribes der Andes sagt Herrera (General History of America): „this variety of tongues proceeded from the nations being divided in races, tribes or clans“. (der clan = gens) Jene tribes of the Andes, von denen er spricht, brought by the Incas under a species of confederacy. – Nachdem E. B. Tylor gesprochen v. Yukatan wo die Descendenz in männlicher Linie u. entsprechendem Ehverbot, sagt er: „ Weiter südlich, unterhalb der Landenge erscheint die „clanship u. prohibition“ wieder (reappear) auf weiblicher Seite, so in Brit. Guiana bei den Arrawaks, bei den Guaranis u. Abiponen in Paraguay (Deutsche Uebersetzung 363, 64.) – Brett („Indian tribes of Guiana“) remarks v. den Indian Tribes in Guiana: these tribes „divided into families (read gentes), each of which has a distinct name, as the Siwidi, Karuafudi, Onisidi etc … these all descend in the female line, and no individual of either sex is allowed to marry another of the same family name. Thus a woman of the Siwidi family bears the same name as her mother, but neither her father nor her husband can be of that family. Her children and the children of her daughters are prohibited from an alliance with any individual bearing the same name; though they may marry into the family of their father, if they choose etc.“

Mit Ausnahme der Andeans, die South American tribes, when discovered, either in lower status of barbarism or in Status of Savagery. Many of the Peruvian tribes concentrated unter the government established bei the Inca village Indians were in Lower State of Barbarism, if zu conclude von der imperfect description des Garcillasso de la Vega.

Wurzel der gens im status of savagery; letzte Entwicklungsphase bei Greeks u. Romans (Upper Status of Barbarism). Wo die gentes bei einem tribe of mankind gefunden in their last form, their remote ancestors must have possessed them in the Archaic form. Das Wichtige wäre die Middle Phase (in Middle Status of Barbarism) genau zu kennen; existirte im 16t Jhdt bei den Village Indians, aber Spanish colonists lost the golden opportunity – to understand a condition of society, deren unit (die gens) sie unfähig to pick up.

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Pt. II Ch. VII The Aztec Confederacy.

Einziger stronghold der Aztecs war das Pueblo de Mexico, mit its capture their governmental fabric destroyed u. substituted die Rule der Spaniards. Diese sahen im Aztec government Analogon europ. Monarchie, fälschten so their whole historical narrations; sind nur »historisch« mit Bezug auf acts der Spanier; acts u. personal characteristics der Aztecs; mit Bezug auf deren Waffen, implements u. ustensils, fabrics, food and raiment u. d.gl. Taugen nichts mit Bezug auf Indian society u. gvt. »they learned nothing and knew nothing of either«.

Aztecs u. their confederate tribes in middle Status of Barbarism: ohne iron u. iron tools; ohne money; traded by barter of commodities; sicher, dass sie prepared one meal each day, erst assen Männer für sich, dann Weiber u. Kinder für sich, hatten weder tables noch chairs.

Commune tenure of lands ; Life in large households composed of a number of related families u. reasons for believing that they practiced communism in living in the household. Andrerseits: they worked the native metals, cultivated by irrigation, manufactured coarse fabrics of cotton, constructed joint-tenement houses of adobe-bricks, made earthenware of excellent quality.

Es existirte kein „Kingdom of Mexico“, wie es in den älteren descriptions heisst, noch „Empire of Mexico“, wie in den späteren getauft. Was die Spanier fanden, simply »Confederacy of 3 tribes«, dessen counterpart existirte in all parts of the continent. Das government administered by a Council of Chiefs mit cooperation eines General Commander of the military bands. (principal war-chief)

Die 3 tribes were: 1) Aztecs or Mexicans; 2) Tezcucans; 3) Tlacopans.

Die Aztecs gehörten zu 7 tribes, migrated vom North, settled in u. near the valley of Mexico, were among the historical tribes dort at time of Spanish Conquest. Alle diese tribes nannten sich collectively »Nahuatlacs« in their traditions, sprachen dialects der Nahuatlac common (stock) language. Acosta (1585 auf visit in Mexico) erzählt die current tradition ihrer successiven Niederlassungen.

1. Sochimilcas „Nation of the Seeds of Flowers“, settled beim Lake Xochimilco, auf südlichem slope des valley of Mexico.

2. Chalcas „People of Mouths“, kamen viel später, settled neben den 1) on Lake Chalco.

3. Tepanecans. „People of the Bridge“, settled at Azcopozalco, west of Lake Tezcuco, on the western slope of the valley.

4. Culhuas. „A crooked People“, settled on east side of Lake Tezcuco – afterwards known as Tezcucans.

5. Tlatluicans. „Men of the Sierra“, finding the valley appropriated around the Lake, passed over the Sierra, südlich u. settled on the other side.

6. Tlascalans. „Men of Bread“; lebten Zeitlang mit den Tepanecans, settled dann beyond the valley, eastward at Tlascala.

7. Aztecs, came last, occupied the site of the present city of Mexico.

Acosta bemerkt, dass sie (die Aztecs!) came from far countries lying toward the North, wo sie nun ein kingdom gestiftet, das sie Neu Mexico nennen. Selbe Tradition bei Clavigero u. Herrera.

Die Tlacopans nicht mentioned, wahrscheinlich subdivision der Tepanecans, remaining in the original area of that tribe, während der remainder to a territory immediately South of the Tlascalans, wo gefunden under name of Tepeacas.

Die tradition enthält 2 facts: 1) 7 tribes of common origin, speaking related dialects, 2) that they came from the North. They were originally one people, durch segmentation naturally fallen into several tribes.

Die Aztecs fanden die best situations des Thals occupirt u. nach verschiedentlichem Ortswechsel settled upon a small expanse of dry land in Mitte of marsh bordered with fields of pedregal u. mit natural ponds. (Teich, Weiher) Hier gründeten sie das Pueblo of Mexico (Tenochtitlan) 1325 (nach Clavigero), 196 J. vor Span. Conquest; waren schwach in number u. poor in condition. Aber entlang ihrem site flossen in Lake Tezcuco rivulets v. den Western Hills u. die outlets der Lakes Xochimilco u. Chalco. Vermittelst causeways (Chausseen, Fahrdämmen) und Deichen umgaben sie ihr Pueblo mit artificial Teich (pond) von large extent, das Wasser being furnished by the named sources. Da das Niveau des Lake Tezcuco höher als jezt war, gab er ihnen, nach vollendetem Werk, die sicherste position aller pueblos im Thal. Ihr mechanical engineering wodurch sie dies Resultat erreichten, one of the greatest achievements der Aztecs.

Zur Zeit der span. Erobrung, 5 der 7 tribes – Aztecs, Tezcucans, Tlacopans, Sochimilcas u. Chalcans residirten im valley. Dies of limited area, about equal to the State of Rhode Island; es war a mountain or upland basin ohne outlet, oval in Form, längest von Nord to Süd, 120 miles in circuit, embracing about 1600 □ miles excluding the surface covered by water; das valley selbst surrounded by a series of hills, one range rising above [another] mit depressions between, encompassing the valley with a mountain barrier. Die tribes residirten in some 30 Pueblos, wovon Mexico the largest. Abundant evidence, dass der Rest des modernen Mexico’s besetzt durch zahlreiche tribes, die vom Nahuatlac verschiedne Sprachen redeten, u. deren Majorität unabhängig. Die remaining Nahuatlac tribes, die ausserhalb des Thals v. Mexico lebten, waren die Tlascalans, die Cholulans (supposed subdivision der former), die Huexotzincos, die Meztitlans (supposed subdivision der Tezcucans) die alle unabhängig, endlich die Tepeacas u. Tlatluicans, die abhängig. Bedeutende Anzahl andrer tribes, bildend about 17 territorial groups mit ebensoviel stock languages, hatten inne den Rest v. Mexico; fast dies genaue Wiederholung – in their state of disintegration u. independence der tribes der U. States u. British Americas, zur Zeit ihrer Entdeckung, ein Jahrhundert od. mehr später.

1426 die Aztec Confederacy formed; vorher wenig historisch wichtige events unter den valley tribes; uneinig, belligerent, ohne Einfluss jenseits ihrer unmittelbaren Lokalitäten. Um jene Zeit bei Aztecs preponderance of numbers u. strength. Unter ihrem war chief Itzcoatl overthrown die frühere Supremacy der Tezcucans u. Tlacopans u. als Folge der früheren wars gegeneinander errichtet league oder aber confederacy. Es war Defensiv- u. Offensive Alliance zwischen den 3 tribes, mit stipulation für Vertheilung unter ihnen der spoils in festgesetzten Proportionen u. der tributes of subjugated tribes. Jezt schwierig zu bestimmen, ob die Verbindung League (at pleasure verlängerbar u. auflösbar) od. confederacy, i.e. consolidated organization wie der Bund der Iroquois. Jeder tribe blieb independent in seinem local self-government; die 3 ein Volk nach Aussen mit Bezug auf Angriff u. Vertheidigung. Jeder tribe hatte seinen eignen council of chiefs u. its own head war-chief, aber der Aztec war-chief war commander-in-chief der confederate bands; to be inferred davon, dass Tezcucans u. Tlacopans had a voice in election u. confirmation des Aztec war-chief; zeigt dass Aztec influence predominated bei Gründung der Confederacy.

1426–1520 – 94 Jahre – die Confederacy had frequent wars mit adjacent tribes u. besonders mit den feeble Village Indians, südlich vom Thal v. Mexico to the Pacific u. östlich bis Guatemala. Sie begannen mit den nächsten, overcame them; the villages in dieser area were numerous, aber small, oft nur a single large structure of adobe-brick or of stone, in some cases – several such structures grouped together. Diese forays wiederholt mit avowed object of gathering spoil, imposing tribute, capturing prisoners for sacrifice, bis die principal tribes in dieser area subdued (mit some exceptions) u. tributary gemacht, incl. die scattered villages der Totonacs nahe bei present Vera Cruz.

Die Aztecs, wie die northern Indians, neither exchanged or released prisoners; the stake their doom bei den Northern Indians unless saved by adoption. Unter den erstern – unter Pfaffeneinfluss – offered as sacrifice to the principal god worshipped. Unter den American aborigines erscheint organized priesthood erst im Middle Status of Barbarism, connection mit der invention of idols u. human sacrifices as a means of acquiring authority over mankind. Wahrscheinlich selbe Geschichte in the principal tribes of mankind.

Mit Bezug auf Gefangne 3 successive usages, in den 3 sub-periods of Barbarism; in 1st Period burned at the stake, in 2ter den gods geopfert, in 3ter wurden sie zu Sklaven gemacht; bei allen 3 das zäh bis tief in s.g. Civilization sich erhaltende Princip dass prisoner forfeited to his captor.

Die Aztec confederacy versuchte nicht in selbe die subdued tribes zu absorbiren; unter gentile institutions machte das barrier of language impossible; they were left to the government of their chiefs u. ihren alten customs. Manchmal a collector of tribute resided amongst them. Member of government konnte man nur durch gens werden, aber Aztecs nicht far advanced enough – wie Romans z. B. – to remove the gentes of the subdued tribes in ihren eignen Sitz u. incorporating them. Aus demselben Grund – u. wegen des Sprachhindernisses – konnten Colonists of Aztec confederacy nicht assimilate the conquered tribes. Aztec confederacy gewann daher nicht Kraft durch ihren terrorism od. by holding these tribes under burdens, inspired mit enmity u. stets ready for revolt. Eben die remaining Nahuatlac tribes nicht in der Confederacy; die Xochimilcas u. Chalcans waren nominell unabhängig, keine members der confederacy, aber tributary.

Die confederacy was confronted durch hostile u. independent tribes, so die Mechoacans im Westen, die Otomies im Northwest (scattered bands dieser near the valley had been placed under tribute), die Chichimecs or wild tribes im North der Otomies, die Meztitlans im Nordosten, die Tlascalans im Osten, die Cholulans u. Huexotzincos im Südosten, u. über diese hinaus, die tribes der Tabasco, der Chiapas u. der Zapotecos (Zapotecs). In diesen verschiednen Richtungen erstreckte sich die dominion der Aztec Confederacy nicht 100 miles beyond the valley of Mexico u. a portion der surrounding area unzweifelhaft neutral ground trennend die confederacy von perpetual enemies. Aus diesen limited materials fabricated the kingdom of Mexico der spanischen Chroniken, später magnified in das Aztec Empire of current history.

Die Bevölkerung des valley u. Pueblo of Mexico excessiv angeschlagen auf 250,000 Persons: gäbe für □ mile about 160 persons, fast 3mal die present average population des State of New York u. about equal to the average population of Rhode Island. Sie hatten weder flocks noch herds, noch field agriculture. Von jener Population für Pueblo v. Mexico vielleicht to be assigned 30,000.

Phantasiezahlen: Zuazo (visiting Mexico in 1521) giebt ihm 60,000 Einwohner, ebenso der anonymous conqueror, who accompanied Cortes (H. Ternaux-Compans, X, 92); Gomora u. Martyr verwandeln die 60,000 Einwohner in 60,000 Häuser u. dies angenommen durch Clavigero, Herrera und last, Prescott („Conquest of Mexico“). Solis macht aus den 60,000 Einwohnern des Zuazo – 60,000 families, würde geben population of 300,000, während London damals nur 145,000 Einw. hatte (Black’s London). Torquemada, cited by Clavigero, macht aus 60,000 houses – 120,000 ! The houses im Pueblo of Mexico were zweifelsohne in general large communal, or joint-tenement houses, wie die in Neu-Mexico zur selben Periode, gross genug zu accomodiren von 10 bis 50 u. 100 families in each.

Die Aztec confederacy – in plan and symmetry – unter der der Iroquois.

Das Pueblo of Mexico war largest in America; romantisch gelegen mitten in einem künstlichen See, large joint-tenement houses plastered over mit gypsum, wodurch sie brilliant weiss, schlug es v. weitem span. Imagination; hence die extravagance of opinion.

Bei den Aztecs found: ornamental gardens, magazines of weapons u. military costumes, improved apparel, manufactured fabrics of cotton of superior workmanship, improved implements u. ustensils u. increased variety of food; picture writing, mainly to indicate the tribute in kind every subjugated village had to pay (these tributes enforced mit system u. rigour of execution were manufactured fabrics u. horticultural products); a calendar for measuring time, open markets for barter of commodities, ferner Administrative offices to meet the demands of a growing municipal life; priesthood, with a temple worship u. a ritual including human sacrifices. Office of head war-chief had risen into increased importance etc.

1) Gentes u. Phratries.

Spanish writers (contemporär der Erobrung) sahen die Aztec Gentes nicht; aber for more than 200 years sahen die Anglo-Americans sie nicht bei den Iroquois; sie bemerkten früh Existenz of clans mit besondren Thiernamen, aber nicht als social unit, worauf tribe u. confederacy aufgebaut. Herrera (etc) spricht of „kindred“ als of group (gens) u. „lineage“ (dies phratry bei einigen writers, bei anderen gens) .

Das pueblo of Mexico geographisch getheilt in 4 quarters, jedes occupied by a »lineage« (phratry) u. jedes quarter »subdivided«; each subdivision occupied by a community of persons bound together by some common tie (gens). ⦗In Mexico nur 1 tribe; der der Aztecs⦘

Selbes erzählt v. Tlascalans ( Herrera, Clavigero): their pueblo divided in 4 quarters, each occupied by a »lineage«; each had its own Teuctli (head war chief), distinctive military costume, its own standard u. blazon … The war-chiefs were ex officio members of the Council. ( Clavigero) Ebenso Cholula getheilt in 6 quarters.

Da die Aztecs in their social subdivisions had arranged unter sich selbst the parts of the pueblo they were severally to occupy, from this their mode of settlement resulted geographical districts.

Nach Acosta giebt Herrera short sketch of the building of Mexico, erst „a chapel of lime and stone for the idol“. Idol befiehlt dann dem Priester, dass sein (des idol’s) Haus in Mitte bleiben soll; die chief men sollen divide themselves, with their kindred und followers, into four wards or quarters, and each party to build as they liked best; dies die 4 quarters of Mexico, nun called St. John, St. Mary the round, St. Paul u. St. Sebastian. Nachdem diese divisions made, befahl das idol wieder unter sich zu distribuiren die gods he should name, and each ward to appoint peculiar places where the gods should be worshipped … So every quarter had several smaller wards in it according to the number of their gods this idol called them to adore … Nach dieser partition, die, die sich injured dachten, mit kindred and followers, went away to seek some other place, nämlich Tlatelulco, das in der Nähe.

Diese Erzählung procedirt, wie Mode, nach fertigem Resultat: erst kin in 4 divisions getheilt u. diese in smaller subdivisions.

The actual process ist genau das Gegentheil: erst each body of kindred (gens) located into an area by themselves, u. die several bodies (phratries) in such a way as to bring those most nearly related in geographical connection mit einander.

Also wenn lowest division a gens each quarter occupied by a phratry, composed of related gentes. (Grecian u. Roman tribes settled in dieser Art in towns or cities) Each gens of the same phratry (die 4 quarters v. Mexico) in the main locally by itself. Da husband u. wife of different gentes u. die children of gens des Vaters od. der Mutter, je nachdem gens in male or female line, the preponderating number in each locality would be of the same gens.

Their military organization based upon these social divisions. In den Mexican Chronicles by the native author Tezozomoc (Morgan erhielt dies von A. F. Bandelier, of Highland, Illinois, engaged upon translation dieses Buchs), referring to a proposed invasion of Michoacan, sprach Axaycatl zu den 2 Mexican captains etc u. all den andern u. fragte „ob alle Mexicans were prepared, after the usages u. customs of each ward; if so, they should begin to march u. that all were to reunite at Matlatzinco Toluca“; dies indicates military organization nach gentes u. phratries.

Auch die land tenure zeigt hin auf gentes. Clavigero sagt: „the lands called Altepetlalli ⦗altepetl = pueblo⦘, that is those of the communities of cities and villages, were divided into as many parts as there were districts in a city, and every district possessed its own part entirely distinct from, and independent of every other. These lands could not be alienated by any means whatever.“

Jede dieser communities war a gens, whose localization war nothwendige Consequenz ihres socialen systems. Die community machte den District ( Clavigero puts the district for the community) and which owned the lands in common.

Das element of kin, which united the community, ausgelassen v. Clavigero, ist ergänzt durch Herrera. Er sagt:

„There were other lords, called major parents ⦗Sachems⦘ whose landed property all belonged to one lineage ⦗gens⦘, which lived in one district and there were many of them when the lands were distributed at the time New Spain was peopled; and each lineage received its own, and have possessed them until now; and these lands did not belong to any one in particular, but to all in common, and he who possessed them could not sell them, although he enjoyed them for life and left them to his sons and heirs; and if a house (alguna casa, feudal expression des Spaniers) died out, they were left to the nearest parent to whom they were given and to no other, who administered the same district or lineage.“

Die feudalen Vorstellungen des Spaniers u. die indianischen Verhältnisse, die er sah, laufen hier durch einander – aber trennbar. Der Aztec »Lord« was der Sachem, civil chief of a body of consanguinei of whom he is called »the major parent«. Die lands gehörten jenem body (gens) in common; when the chief died, his place (according to Herrera) ging über auf seinen Sohn; was überging, war in diesem Fall das office of Sachem, nicht das land, das niemand in trust »possessed«; hatte er keinen Sohn „the lands were left to the nearest major parent“, d.h. another person was elected Sachem.

»Lineage« kann hier nichts anders sein wie gens u. office hereditary in the gens, wie bei den andern Indians, elective unter den members der gens; wenn descent in male line, choice would fall on one of the sons of the defunct Sachem, own or collateral, or upon a brother, own or collateral etc.

The »lineage« of Herrera u. the »communities« of Clavigero offenbar selbe organizations – gentes. Der Sachem had no title over lands u. konnte sie transmit to nobody. Spanier betrachteten die Sache so, weil he held an office perpetually maintained u. weil there was a body of lands perpetually belonging to a gens over which he was a sachem; dieser (ausser seinen functions of chief der gens) hatte so wenig authority über die persons (die ihm die Spanier zuschreiben) wie über die lands.

Was sie über inheritance sagen, ebenso confus u. contradictory; nur wichtig hier, soweit sie show bodies of consanguinei u. the inheritance of the children from their fathers, im welchem Fall descent in male line.

2) Existence u. Functions des Council of Chiefs.

Für Existenz eines Aztec Council – evidence; fast nichts über seine Function u. Anzahl seiner Glieder.

Brasseur de Bourbourg sagt „nearly all the towns or tribes divided into 4 clans or quarters, whose chiefs constitute the great council“; später sagt er, der Aztec Council habe aus 4 bestanden.( Bourbourg, Popol Vuh)

Diego Duran – (schrieb seine „History of the Indies of New Spain and Islands of the Main Lands“ 1579–1581, also vor Acosta u. Tezozomoc) – sagt: „In Mexico, nach Wahl eines Königs wählten sie 4 lords of the brothers or near relations of this king whom they gave the titles of princes, and from whom they had to choose the king … These 4 lords or titles after being elected princes, they made them the royal council, like the presidents and judges of the supreme council, without whose opinion nothing could be done.“

Acosta nennt die same 4 offices ⦗Tlacachcalcatl, Tlacatecal, Ezuauacatl, u. Fillancalque⦘, nennt die tenants dieser offices „electors“ u. [remarks that] „all these 4 dignities were of the great council, without whose advice the king might not do anything of importance.“

Herrera places diese offices in 4 grades, sagt dann: „These 4 sorts of noblemen were of the supreme council, without whose advice the king was to do nothing of moment, and no king could be chosen but what was [of] one of these 4 orders.“ »King« für principal war chief u. »princes« für Indian chiefs. Als die Huexotzincos delegates nach Mexico sandten zum Vorschlag einer Allianz gegen die Tlascalans, sagte ihnen – nach Tezozomoc – Montezuma: „Brothers and sons, you are welcome, rest yourselves awhile, for although I am king indeed I alone cannot satisfy you, but only together with all the chiefs of the sacred Mexican senate.“ Hier material point wie in den obigen accounts: Existence of a supreme council, with authority over the action of the principal war-chief. Die limitation des Council to 4 unwahrscheinlich; so würde der Council represent nicht den Aztec tribe, sondern the small body of kinsmen aus welchen der military commander was to be chosen. Aber im indianischen System (und everywhere else unter gentile institution) jeder chief represents a constituency u. die chiefs together represent the tribe. Manchmal gemacht a selection from them to form a general council; dann aber stets durch an organic provision fixing the number, and providing for their perpetual maintenance.

Der Tezcucan Council of 14 members ( Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chichimeca, Kingsborough, Mexican Antiq. IX, p. 243); der Council at Tlascala was a numerous body; wir finden ebenso a Cholulan u. a Michoacan council, aber Clavigero sagt mit Bezug auf Aztecs: „In the history of the conquest we shall find Montezuma in frequent deliberation with his council on the pretensions of the Spaniards. We do not know the number of each Council, nor do historians furnish us with the lights to illustrate such a subject.“

Sofern der Aztec Council limited to 4 members, all of the same lineage, it is presented in unwahrscheinlicher Form. ⦗Mögen Spanier dem Tribal Council, aus den Chiefs der gentes bestehend, nicht fälschlich untergeschoben haben die gens aus der principal war chief u. vielleicht 4 andre offices zu wählen? Ganz wie z. B. der wampum keeper aus bestimmter gens bei Iroquois zu wählen? Amt konnte hereditary an gens gekommen sein.⦘

Jeder tribe in Mexico u. Central America had its Council of chiefs.

Die Aztec Confederacy scheint keinen General Council gehabt zu haben, composed of the principal chiefs of the 3 tribes, im Unterschied v. dem separate council jedes tribes. In diesem Fall wäre Aztec Confederacy nur League gewesen, offensive u. defensive, u. as such under the primary control of the Aztec tribe. Dies noch to elucidate.

3) Tenure u. Functions des Office of Principal War-chief.

Der Name des office des Montezuma– Teuctli, war-chief; als member des Council of chiefs er manchmal genannt Tlatoani (= speaker). This office of a general military commander the highest known to the Aztecs, war sonst same als der Haupt war-chief der Iroquois Confederacy. Das office machte seinen Träger ex officio member of the council of chiefs. The title of Teuctli added als a sort of surname wie: Chichimeca-Teuctli, Pil-Teuctli etc. Bei Clavigero heissts: „The teuctli took precedency of all others in the Senate, both in the order of sitting and voting, and were permitted to have a servant behind them (der sub-sachem der Iroquois) with a seat, which was esteemed a privilege of the highest honour.“

Die Spanish writers brauchen nie das Wort »teuctli«, verwandeln es in king für Montezuma u. dessen successors. Ixtlilxochitl, of mixed Tezcucan u. Spanish descent nennt die head war-chiefs of Mexico, Tezcuco u. Tlacopan nur »war-chief« teuctli u. [mit] andrem Wort to indicate the tribe. (teuctli = war-chief = general) Obiger Ixtlilxochitl sagt, sprechend von der division of power zwischen den 3 chiefs, when the confederacy was formed etc:

„The king of Tezcuco was saluted ⦗durch die assembled chiefs der 3 tribes⦘ by the title of Aculhua Teuctli, also by that of Chichimecatl Teuctli which his ancestors had worn and which was the mark of the empire ⦗das Beiwort: tribal designation⦘; Itzcoatzin (Itzcoatl), his uncle, received the title of Culhua Teuctli, because he reigned over the Toltecs-Culhuas ⦗war war-chief of the Aztecs, when the confederacy was formed⦘; and Totoquihuatzin den of Tecpanuatl Teuctli, which had been the title of Azcaputzalco. Since that time their successors have received the same title.“

Die Spanier stimmen überein, dass das office Montezuma held was elective with the choice confined to a particular family, u. was sie wundert, nicht von Vater auf Sohn, sondern v. Bruder zu Bruder, oder von Onkel auf Neffen. Unter der immediate notice der conquerors fanden 2 Wahlen statt; dem Montezuma folgte sein Bruder (unbekannt, ob own od. collateral) Cuitlahua; nach Tod dieses elected sein Neffe Guatemozin (own or collateral nephew?) Schon bei früheren Wahlen Bruder dem Bruder gefolgt od. Neffe dem Onkel. ( Clavigero) Aber wer wählte? Duran (sieh oben) bringt 4 chiefs as electors, denen zugefügt 1 elector von Tezcuco u. 1 von Tlacopan, zus. 6, invested with power to choose from a particular family the principal war-chief. Dies entspricht nicht dem System of an elective Indian office.

Sahagun ( „Historia General etc“, ch. XVIII) sagt: „When the king or lord died, all the senators called Tecutlatoques, and the old men of the tribe called Achcacauhti, and also the captains and old warriors called Yautequioaques, and other prominent captains in warlike matters, and also the priests called Tlenamacaques, or Papasaques – all these assembled in the royal houses. Then they deliberated upon and determined who had to be the lord, and chose one of the most noble of the lineage of the past lords, who should be a valiant man, experienced in warlike matters, daring and brave. … When they agreed upon one they at once named him as lord, but this election was not made by ballots or votes, but all together conferring at last agreed upon the man … the lord once elected they also elected 4 others which were like senators, and had to be always with the lord, and be informed of all the business of the kingdom.“

Hatten die Aztecs gentes, the office hereditary in a particular gens, but elective among its members; would pass (wie der Sahagun von den Aztecs oben erzählt) by election within the gens, von brother to brother od. von uncle to nephew, aber nie von Vater to son (nämlich bei descent in female line, wie bei den Iroquois). Diese succession bei der Wahl der Aztecs v. war-chiefs beweist dass sie gentes hatten u. with respect to this office wenigstens noch descent in female line.

Morgan conjecturirt: office held by Montezuma hereditary in a gens (the eagle was the blazon or totem on the house occupied by Montezuma), deren members ihn aus ihrer Zahl wählten; diese nomination then submitted separately to the 4 lineages (phratries) of the Aztecs for acceptance or rejection; auch den Tezcusans u. Tlacopans, direct interested in Wahl des general commander. Nachdem sie severally considered u. confirmed the nomination each division appointed a person to signify their concurrence; hence the 6 miscalled »electors«; die 4 high chiefs der Aztecs, mentioned as electors, wahrscheinlich the 4 war-chiefs of the 4 »lineages« od. phratries der Aztecs, like the 4 war-chiefs of the 4 lineages of the Tlascalans; ihre function nicht to elect, sondern to ascertain durch Conferenz mit einander, ob die choice made by the gens had been concurred in, and if so to announce the result.

Absetzungsrecht folgt v. Wahlrecht, where the term was for life. Als Montezuma, durch intimidation, sich von seiner Residenz nach Quartier des Cortez geleiten lässt, wo er placed under confinement, the Aztecs zunächst paralyzed. – In den West Indias hatten die Herrn Spanier entdeckt, dass wenn der cazique eines tribe caught u. als Gefangner gehalten, die Indians paralyzed refused to fight. Im Besitz dieser Kenntniss, sobald sie auf’s Festland kamen, suchten sie den principal chief to entrap, by force or fraud, u. hielten ihn gefangen bis ihr Zweck erreicht war. So Cortez mit Montezuma; so Pizarro when he seized Atahuallpa. Unter den Indians selbst prisoner put to death; if a principal chief, the office reverted to the tribe u. was at once filled. The Action des people (durch Spaniards) paralyzed by novel circumstances; prisoner hier alive u. in possession of his office. Cortez put the Aztecs in this position. Erst warteten sie einige Wochen, hoffend die Spaniards would retire; dann aber setzten sie Montezuma ab for want of resolution, wählten seinen Bruder an seine Stelle, assaulted gleich darauf die Spanish quarters mit great fury u. vertrieben sie schliesslich aus ihrem Pueblo. Cortez sent Marina zu Montezuma ihn zu fragen ob er glaube, sie hätten government in hands von new commander gegeben? (Alles dies Herrera) Der replied: „they would not presume to choose a king in Mexico whilst he was living“, geht dann auf’s Dach des Hauses, addressirt his countrymen u. (nach Clavigero) erhielt Antwort von an Aztec warrior: „Hold your peace, you effeminate scoundrel, born to weave and spin; these dogs keep you a prisoner, you are a coward“; sie schossen dann mit arrows auf ihn u. stoned ihn, er starb kurz nachher von der Demüthigung; der war-chief, in diesem assault der Aztecs commandirend, war sein Bruder Cuitlahua.

Kein Grund anzunehmen, vielmehr alles dagegen, dass Montezuma had any power over the civil affairs der Aztecs. Aber functions of a priest u., wie Herrera sagt, auch of a judge, attached to his office of principal war chief … Council hatte also Recht, wie to elect, so to depose. – Die Spanier selbst erst anerkennen, dass die Aztec confederacy – a league or confederacy of tribes. Wie konnten sie daraus Aztec monarchy fabriciren?

Pt. II. Ch. VIII. The Grecian Gens.

About 850. B.C. begins civilization unter Asiatic Greeks mit Homeric poems; unter den European Greeks about century later mit Hesiodic poems. Period vorher v. several 1000nd years, während deren Hellenen advancing durch lower Status of Barbarism; ihre ältesten traditions finden sie schon established in Grecian peninsula, auf eastern border of Mediterranean u. den intermediate u. adjacent islands. Aeltere branch desselben Stock, wovon Pelasgians die chief representatives, hatten vorher grösseren Theil derselben Area occupirt, in time either hellenized od. forced durch Hellenen into emigration.

Pelasgians u. Hellenes organized in gentes, phratries (nicht common to the Dorian tribes. Müller’s „Dorier“) u. tribes; in einigen Fällen die organic series nicht complete, aber überall gens die unit of organization; Council of chiefs; agora od. assembly of the people; u. βασιλεύς or military commander. Modifications mit Entwicklung forced upon gens, nämlich: 1) change von female to male descent; 2) intermarriage in gens permitted in case of female orphans u. heiresses; 3) children had gained an exclusive inheritance of their father’s [property]. Hellenes were in fragmentary tribes analog to Indians etc.

Griechische society comes first under notice about 1st Olympiade (776 B.C.); von da bis legislation of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.) vorgehend Uebergang von gentile in political (civil) Organization. ⦗Er hätte sagen sollen dass political hier Sinn des Aristoteles hat = städtisch u. politisches animal = Stadtbürger.⦘ Die Township, mit dem fixed property it contained u. the people who inhabited [it] for the time being, was to become the unit of organization; gentilis transformed into civis. The relations of the individual to his gens, which were personal, had to be transferred to the township and become territorial; der demarch (Vorsteher der deme) der township taking in some sense the place of the chief of the gens.

Property was the new element that had been gradually remoulding Grecian institutions to prepare for this change; nachdem several centuries elapsed in Versuchen ihn auf Basis der gens auszuführen. Distinct schemes verschiedner Art of legislation tried in the various Grecian communities who copied more or less each other’s experiments, all tending to the same result.

Unter Athenians legislation of Theseus (Tradition); 624 B.C. Draco; 594 B.C. Solon; 509 B.C. Cleisthenes.

Bei Beginn der historischen Periode die Jonians of Attica divided in 4 tribes: Geleontes, Hopletes, Aegicores u. Argades.

⦗Stamm φυλή; dann φρατρία od. φρατορία; φράτωρ Glied einer phratry; Γένος Geschlecht ⦗auch: Nation u. Stamm⦘. »Die Geschlechterphylen gewöhnlich in Unterabtheilungen – Phratrien, diese wieder in Geschlechter; ⦗Ausser Γένος (τό) (Γενω) kommt aber bei Homer Γενεά, jonisch γενεή u. zwar für Stamm, Geburt, Familie, Nachkommenschaft [vor].⦘ die Geschlechter wieder abgetheilt in οἶκοι (Häuser od. Familien); die Unterabtheilungen dagegen der topischen Phylen sind Gaue (δῆμοι) od. Ortschaften (κῶμαι) … ursprünglich, auch wo Geschlechterphylen waren, wohnten die Genossen eines Stammes zusammen im selben Theil des Landes, ebenso die Genossen einer Phratrie u. eines Geschlechts, so dass auch hier mit der Eintheilung des Volks zugleich eine Eintheilung des Landes in grössere od. kleinere Districte verbunden war. – Bei den topischen Phylen kamen lediglich die Wohnsitze in Betracht. Später dies doch nicht so streng gehalten, dass Verlegung des Wohnsitzes aus einem Phylendistrict in andern nothwendig auch Versetzung in andre Phyle herbeigezogen hätte.« (134, 135. Schoemann. I.) Einer Phyle, u. in derselben einer Phratrie od. [einem] δῆμος (Gau) anzugehören war überall wesentliches Merkmal u. Bedingung des Bürgerthums … wovon die nicht in jenen Abtheilungen begriffenen Landeseinwohner ausgeschlossen. Nähres über letztere ib. p. 135 sq.⦘

Die 4 Attischen tribes – Geleontes, Aegicores, Hopletes, Argades – selben Dialekt sprechend, occupying a common territory, had coalesced into a nation, waren vorher aber wahrscheinlich blosse confederacy. ⦗Hermann (Political Antiquities of Greece) mentions the confederacies of Athens, Aegina, Prasia, Nauplia etc.⦘ Each Attic tribe composed of 3 phratries, each phratry of 30 gentes, hence 4 (tribes) × 3 phr. od. 12 × 30 gentes = 360 gentes; phratries u. tribes constant, aber Anzahl der gentes variirt.

Dorians generally found in 3 tribes – Hylleis, Pamphyli u. Dymanes at Sparta, Argos, Sicyon, Corinth, Troezen etc wo sie verschiedne nations bildeten u. jenseits des Peloponnes in Megara etc. 1 or more non-Dorian tribes in some cases united mit ihnen wie in Corinth, Sicyon, Argos.

In all cases der Grecian tribe presupposes gentes, selben Dialekt redend; Phratrie kann fehlen. In Sparta die ὠβή (ὠβάξω lakonisch in ὠβάς eintheilen, ὠβάτης Glied einer ὠβή). Jeder tribe enthielt 10 ὠβαί (?) Phratrien? Von ihrer Function nichts bekannt; in der ancient Rhetra des Lykurg die tribes u. obês directed to be maintained unaltered.

Social system der Athenians: 1) Γένος gens, founded upon kin; dann φρατρία, auch φράτρα, from segmentation of an original gens, brotherhood of gentes; dann φῦλον, später φυλή, tribe composed of several phratries; dann people or nation composed of several tribes. Confederacy of tribes kommt früh vor (die tribes occupying independent territories), led to no important results. Likely dass die 4 tribes, erst confederated, dann coalesced, after having collected in one territory under pressure from other tribes.

Grote, in his „History of Greece“ stellt Sache so dar: „Phratries u. gentes seem aggregations of small primitive unities into larger … independent of, and do not presuppose the tribe … basis of the whole the house, hearth or family (οἶκος), a number of which, greater or less, composed the Gens (Γένος) – clan, sept, or enlarged, and partly fictitious, brotherhood, bound together by:

1. Common religious ceremonies, and exclusive privilege of priesthood, in honour of the same god supposed to be the primitive ancestor, characterized by a special surname;\
2. Common burial place. — { »καίτοι τίς ἔστιν ὅστις ἃν εἰς τὰ πατρῷα μνήματα τοὺς μηδὲν ἐν γένει τιθέντας ἐάσαι.« Demosth. Eubulides.\
3. mutual rights of succession to property.\
4. reciprocal obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries.\
5. mutual right and obligation to intermarry in certain determinate cases, especially where there was an orphan daughter or heiress.\
6. Possession in some cases at least of common property; an archon and treasurer of their own.

Phratric union, binding together several gentes, less intimate … doch auch mutual rights u. obligations of an analogous character; especially a communion of particular sacred rites, and mutual privileges of prosecution in the event of a phrator being slain … All the phratries of the same tribe enjoyed a certain periodical communion of sacred rites under the presidency of a magistrate called the Phylo-Basileus or tribe-king selected from the Eupatrids.“

Durch die Grecian gens guckt der Wilde (Iroquois z. B.) aber auch unverkennbar durch.

Sonst eigenthümlich to the Grecian gens:

7. limitation of descent to male line; 8) prohibition of intermarriage in the gens ausser in case of heiresses; 9) Right of adopting strangers in the gens; 10) right of electing u. deposing its chiefs.

ad 7) In unsrer eignen modernen Familie, those descended from males bear the family name, constitute a gens, obgleich in a state of dispersion u. ohne bond of union ausser den nearest in degree. Die females lose mit Heirath their family name, werden mit their children transferred to other gens. Hermann sagt: „Jedes Kind wurde einregistrirt in die Phratrie wie Geschlecht (Γένος) seines Vaters.“

ad 8) ⦗Interdiction of intermarriage in gens geht hervor schon aus der Ausnahme, for heiresses, wo dies erlaubt.⦘

Wachsmuth: „Die Jungfrau, die ihres Vater’s Haus verlässt, ist nicht länger Theilnehmer am väterlichen Opferherd, sondern enters the religious communion ihres Mannes, u. this gave sanctity to the marriage tie.“ Hermann sagt: „Jedes neu verheirathete Frauenzimmer, herself a citizen, was on this account enrolled in the phratry of her husband.“ Sacra gentilicia common in griech. u. röm. Gens. Scheint nicht, dass bei Griechen – wie bei Römern – the wife forfeited her agnatic rights by marriage; sie doubtless counted herself of the gens of her father.

Rule, die intermarriage in gens verbietet, dauert fort, selbst nach Gründung der monogamian Ehe ⦗die solche limits auf nearest degrees to limit sucht⦘, solang gens basis des social system bleibt. Becker sagt in Charicles: „relationship was, with trifling limitations, no hinderance to marriage, which could take place within all degrees of ἀγχιστεία, or συγγένεια, though naturally not in the γένος itself.“

ad 9) Adoption später practicirt, mindestens in families, doch mit public formalities u. limited to special cases.

ad 10) Das right to elect and depose its chiefs gehörte unbedingt den Grecian gentes in early period; each gens had its ἀρχός, the common name for a chief. Dass das office erblich auf son in homeric period nicht anzunehmen, considering the free spirit der Athenian gentes down to Solon u. Cleisthenes. Presumption stets gegen hereditary right, wo nicht decisive evidence, da der stärkste Widerspruch gegen die archaic rule.

Was abgeschmackt bei Grote, dass die Basis des social system der Greeks der οἶκος „the house, hearth, or family“. Er verlegt offenbar die Roman family under the ironclad rule of a pater familias in’s homerische Zeitalter der griech. Familie. Gens in origin älter als monogamian u. syndyasmian families, essentially contemporaneous mit punaluan family; aber gens nicht founded upon either. Jede family, archaic or not, ist halb in, halb ausser gens, weil husband u. wife belong to different gentes. ⦗aber gens entspringt nothwendig aus einer Promiscuous group; sobald innerhalb dieser schon intermarriage zwischen Brüdern u. Schwestern entfernt (stopped) zu werden beginnt, kann gens gepfropft werden auf die group, nicht vorher; Voraussetzung der gens, dass Brüder und Schwestern (own u. collateral) bereits von andern consaguinei geschieden sind. Die gens einmal da, bleibt sie unit des social system, während die Familie grosse changes durchläuft.⦘

Gens geht ganz ein in phratry, diese in tribe, diese in nation, aber family geht nie ganz ein in gens, sobald letztere einmal existirt; sie geht immer nur halb ein in gens des Mannes u. halb in gens der Frau.

Nicht nur Grote sondern Niebuhr, Thirlwall, Maine, Mommsen etc – alle von klassischer Schülergelehrsamkeit – nehmen selben Stand mit Bezug auf monogamische Familie of patriarchal type als integer around which society integrated in the Grecian u. Roman systems. Family konnte ebensowenig – selbst die monogamische – natural basis of gentile society bilden, wie heutzutage in bürgerlicher Gesellschaft the family is not the unit of the political system. Der Staat recognizes the counties woraus er zusammengesetzt, diese its townships, but the township takes no note of the family; so die nation recognized its tribes, the tribes its phratries, the phratries its gentes, but the gens took no note of the family.

Herrn Grote ferner zu bemerken, dass obgleich die Griechen ihre gentes aus der Mythologie herleiten, jene älter sind als die von ihnen selbst geschaffne Mythology mit ihren Göttern u. Halbgöttern.

In the organization of gentile society, the gens is primary, forming both the basis u. unit des systems; die family auch primary u. älter als die gens; the consanguine u. punaluan families having pre-existed in time; but it is not a member of the organic series.

Grote sagt: „Primitive religious and social union der attischen Bevölkerung – im Unterschied v. der political union, die wahrscheinlich (!) späterer introduction, represented at first durch die trittyes u. naukraries, u. später die 10 Kleisthenean tribes, subdivided into trittyes u. demes. In the former personal relation is the essential u. predominant characteristic, – local relation being subordinate; in the latter, property and residence become the chief considerations u. das personal element counts only as measured along with these accompaniments. … the festival of Theoenia (Attic) u. Apaturia (common to all the Ionian race) annually brought together the members of these phratries u. gentes for worship, festivity u. maintenance of special sympathies …

The gentes both at Athens u. in other parts of Greece bore a patronymic name, the stamp of their believed common paternity … Asklepiadae in many parts of Greece; Aleuadae in Thessaly; Midylidae, Psalychidae, Belpsiadae, Euxenidae, at Aegina; Branchidae at Miletus, Nebridae at Kôs, Iamidae u. Klytiadae at Olympia, Akestoridae at Argos, Kinyradae at Cyprus, Penthilidae at Mitylene, Talthybiadae at Sparta –, Kodridae, Eumolpidae, Phytalidae, Lykomêdae, Butadae, Euneidae, Hesychidae, Brytiadae etc in Attica. To each corresponded a mythical ancestor, passing for the first father as well as the eponymous hero of the gens – Kodrus, Eumolpus, Butes, Phytalus, Hesychus etc … In Athen, mindestens nach der Revolution des Kleisthenes, der gentile name nicht employed; a man described first by his own single name, dann by name of his father u. next by that of the deme to which he belonged, wie Aeschines son of Atromêtus, a Kothôkid … gens a close corporation, both as to property and to persons. Bis Solon’s Zeit keine power of testamentary disposition. Wenn er ohne Kinder starb, succeeded his gennêtes in sein Eigenthum, u. dies selbst nach Solon, if he died intestate. … If a man murdered, first his nearest relations, dann his gennêtes u. phrators beide allowed u. required to prosecute the crime at law; while his fellow demots, or inhabitants of the same deme, did not possess the like right of persecuting. All that we hear of the most Ancient Athenian laws based upon the gentile and phratric divisions which are treated throughout as extensions of the family (!?) … this division is completely independent of any property qualification – rich men as well as poor being comprehended in the same gens … Different gentes unequal in dignity, arising chiefly from the religious ceremonies of which each possessed the hereditary and exclusive administration, and which, being in some cases considered of pre-eminent sanctity, were therefore nationalized. Thus the Eumolpidae and Kerykes, who supplied the hierophant and superintendent of the mysteries of the Eleusinian Demeter – and the Butadae, who furnished the priestess of Athene Polias, as well as the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus in the Acropolis – seem to have been reverenced above all the other gentes.“

Gens existed in the Aryan family when the Latin, Greek u. Sanskrit speaking tribes one people (gens, Γένος u. ganas); derived it from their barbarous ancestors u. more remotely from their savage progenitors. If the Aryan family became as early separated as the Middle Period of Barbarism, u. dies wahrscheinlich, the gens must have been transmitted to them in its Archaic form … Cf. gens of the Iroquois, in the lower Status of Barbarism mit gens der Grecian in Upper Status, schlagend dieselbe Organization, dort in its archaic form, hier in its ultimate form. The differences between them forced upon the gens by the exigencies of human progress.

Mit diesen mutations in gens parallel mutations in the rule of inheritance … When Solon allowed the owner of property to dispose of it by will, in case he had no children, he made the first inroad upon the property rights of the gens.

Herr Grote, nachdem er remarked that „ Pollux informs us distinctly that the members of the same gens at Athens were not commonly related“ erklärt den Ursprung der Gens als Schulgelehrter Philister so: „Gentilism is a tie by itself; distinct from the family ties, but presupposing their existence and extending them by an artificial analogy, partly founded in religious belief, and partly on positive compact, so as to comprehend strangers in blood. All the members of one gens, or even of one phratry, believed themselves to be sprung … from the same divine or heroic ancestor … Doubtless Niebuhr is right in supposing the ancient Roman gentes were not real families, procreated from one common historical ancestor. Still it is not less true … that the idea of the gens involved the belief in a common first father, divine or heroic – a genealogy … fabulous, but consecrated and accredited among the members of the gens itself; it served as one important bond of union between them … The natural families of course changed from generation to generation, some extending … others diminished, or died out; but the gens received no alterations, except through the procreation, extinction and subdivision of these component families. Accordingly the relations of the families mit den gentes in perpetual course of fluctuation, and the gentile ancestorial genealogy, adapted as it doubtless was to the early condition of the gens, became in progress of time partially obsolete and unsuitable. We hear of this genealogy but rarely … only brought before the public in certain cases preeminent and venerable. But the humbler gentes had their common rites (Sonderbar dies, Mr. Grote?), and common superhuman ancestor and genealogy, as well as the more celebrated: (how very strange this on the part of humbler gentes! Is it not, Mr. Grote?) the scheme and ideal (dear Sir, not ideal, but carnal, germanice fleischlich) basis was the same in all.“

The system of consanguinity pertaining to gens in its archaic form – u. die Griechen hatten diese once besessen like other mortals – preserved a knowledge of the relationships of all the members of a gens to each other. ⦗Lernten dies für sie entscheidend Wichtige durch Praxis v. Kindesbeinen⦘ This fell into desuetude with the monogamic family. The gentile name created a pedigree beside which that of a family was insignificant. It was the function of this name to preserve the fact of the common descent of those who bore it; but the lineage of the gens so ancient that its members could not prove the actual relationship between them, ausser in beschränkter Zahl von cases through recent common ancestors. Der name itself evidence of a common descent and conclusive, except as it was liable to interruption through the adoption of strangers in blood in the previous history der gens. Dahingegen das practical denial aller relationship zwischen its members à la Pollux u. Niebuhr , changing the gens into a purely fictitious creation würdig idealer i.e. stubenhockerischer Schriftgelehrter. ⦗Weil die Verkettung der Geschlechter, namentlich mit Anbruch der Monogamie, in die Ferne gerückt u. die past reality im mythological Phantasiebild reflectirt erscheint, hence schlossen u. schliessen Philister-Biedermänner, dass die Phantasiegenealogie wirkliche gentes schuf!⦘ Grosse Proportion v Gliedern der Gens konnten ihre Abstammung weit zurück nachweisen u. bei dem remainder the gentile name they bore sufficient evidence of common descent for practical purposes. The Grecian gens meist small body; 30 families to a gens, abgesehn v. den wives der Familienhäupter, would give average of 120 persons by gens.

In gens the religious activity der Greeks originated, expanded over the phratries, culminated in periodical festivals common to all. (De Coulanges) ⦗Das lumpige religiöse Element wird Hauptsache bei gens, im Mass wie real cooperation u. common property alle werden; der Weihrauchduft, der übrig bleibt.⦘

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Pt. II) Ch. IX The Grecian Phratry, Tribe and Nation.

Die griech. phratry: its natural foundation in bond of kin, gentes die subdivisions einer common gens gebildet. Says Grote: „All the contemporary members of the phratry of Hekatäus had a common god for their ancestor at the 16th degree“; the gentes were brother gentes literally ⦗originally⦘ u. hence their organization – phratry. Die Existenz der letzteren erklärt sich schon Dikaearchus rationalistisch so: the practice of certain gentes in supplying each other with wives, led to the phratric organization for (!) the performance of common religious rites. A fragment dieses Dikaearchus preserved durch Stephanus of Byzantium. Er braucht πάτρα für gens, wie Pindar oft u. Homer manchmal. Stephanus berichtet so:

„Patry is one of 3 forms of social union among Greeks, according to Dikaearchus, which we call respectively patry, phratry and tribe. The patry comes into being when relationship, originally solitary, passes over into the second stage ⦗relation of parents with children and children with parents⦘, and derives its eponym from the oldest and chief member of the patry, as Aicidas, Pelopidas. But it came to be called phatria or phratria when certain ones gave their daughters to be married into another patry. For the woman who was given in marriage participated no longer in the paternal sacred rites, but was enrolled in the patry of her husband; so that for the union, formerly existing by affection between sisters and brothers, there was established another union based on community of religious rites, which they denominated a phratry; and so that again, while the patry took its rise in the way we have previously mentioned, from the blood relation between parents and children, and children and parents, the phratry took its rise from relationship between brothers. But tribe and tribesmen were so called from the coalescence into communities and nations so called, for each of the coalescing bodies was a tribe.“ (Wachsmuth: „Hist. Antiquitäten der Griechen“)

Marriage out of the gens here anerkannt als custom, u. wife enrolled in the gens (patry) rather than the phratry of her husband.

Dikäarchus, ein Schüler des Aristoteles, lebte zur Zeit wo gens existed chiefly as a pedigree of individuals, its powers having been transferred to new political powers. Intermarriages, mit common religious rites, konnten nicht gründen, wohl aber cement the phratric union. Griechen wussten v. ihrer eignen Geschichte nichts ausser bis in Status of Upper Barbarism hinein.

Sieh in array of military forces phratries u. tribes bei Homer. (Sieh oben!) Aus dem advice des Nestor an Agamemnon geht hervor, dass the organization of armies by phratries u. tribes had then ceased to be common. ⦗Gens v. vorn herein too small a basis for organization of an army.⦘ ⦗Tacitus, De moribus Germaniae, sagt v. den Germanen im Krieg, caput 7: »nec fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates.«⦘

Obligation of blood revenge – turned später in duty of prosecuting the murderer before the legal tribunals – rested primarily upon the gens of the slain, aber shared auch by phratry, u. became a phratric obligation. The extension der obligation v. gens zu phratry implies a common lineage of all the gentes in a phratry. – Unter den Athenern überlebte phratric organization the overthrow of the gentes as the basis of a system; retained, in der new polit. society, some control over the registration of citizens, the enrollment of marriages u. the prosecution of the murderer of a phrator before the courts.

Greek gentes u. phratries liessen als legacy to the new society they were destined to found: their institutions, arts, inventions u. mythological (polytheistic) system.

Wie an Spitze der gens ἀρχός, so an Spitze der Phratry Phratriarch (φρᾱτριάρχος), presided at its meetings u. officiated in the solemnization of religious rites. Sagt Coulanges: „The phratry had its assemblies and its tribunals, and could pass decrees. In it, as well as in the family, there was a god, a priesthood, a legal tribunal and a government.“ The religious rites of the phratries were an expansion of those of the gentes of which it was composed.

A number of phratries composed the tribe; the persons in each phratry, of same common lineage, spoke the same dialect. The concentration of such Grecian tribes as had coalesced into a people, in a small area, tended to repress dialectical variations, which a subsequent written language tended still further to arrest.

When die several phratries of a tribe united in the commemoration of their religious observances, so in ihrer quality qua tribe; as such under the presidency of a phylo-basileus, the principal chief of the tribe; he possessed priestly functions, always inherent in the office of basileus, u. übte a criminal justice aus in cases of murder; dagegen absence of civil functions; also king schlechter misnomer für »basileus«. Unter den Athenern der tribe-basileus, dann selber term for the general military commander of the 4 tribes. Gentile institutions essentially democratical, monarchy incompatible with gentilism. Every gens, phratry, tribe a completely organized self-governing body; wo several tribes coalesced into a nation the resulting government constituted in harmony with the principles animating its constituent parts.

Tribes, coalesced into a nation, wie die tribes der Athenians u. Spartans, simply a more complex duplicate of a tribe. There was no name (social one) for the new organism ⦗wo tribes took the same place in the nation as phratries in the tribe, gentes in the phratry⦘; Aristoteles, Thucydides u. andre »moderne« nennen die governments der heroic period – βασιλεία ; statt dessen sprang up name for the people or nation. So bei Homer Athenians, Locrians, Aetolians etc, aber auch v. city od. country they came from. So, vor Lykurg u. Solon, 4 stages of social organization: gens, phratry, tribe u. nation. So gentile Grecian society a series of aggregates of persons, with whom the government dealt through their personal relations to a gens, phratry or tribe.

Im heroic age bei Athenian nation 3 co-ordinate departments or powers: 1) the council of chiefs (βουλή); 2) ἀγορά, assembly of the people; 3) βασιλεύς, general military commander.

1. Council of chiefs had permanence as a feature of their social system; its powers ultimate and supreme; wahrscheinlich auch hier composed of the chiefs of gentes; selection must have been made, da ihre Anzahl meist kleiner als die der gentes; Council auch legislative body representing the principal gentes; seine importance mag abgenommen haben mit wachsender Wichtigkeit des office of βασιλεύς u. the new offices created in their military u. municipal affairs with their increase in numbers u. wealth; but it could not be overthrown without a radical change of institutions. Hence every office of the government muss dem Council accountable geblieben sein for its official acts.

Dionysius, 2, XII sagt: »Ἑλληνικὸν δὲ ἄρα καὶ τοῦτο τὸ ἔθος ἦν. τοῖς γοῦν βασιλεῦσιν, ὅσοι τε πατρίους ἀρχὰς παραλάβοιεν καὶ ὅσους ἡ πληθὺς αὐτὴ καταστήσαιτο ἡγεμόνας, βουλευτήριον ἦν ἐκ τῶν κρατίστων, ὡς Ὅμηρός τε καὶ οἱ παλαιότατοι τῶν ποιητῶν μαρτυροῦσι· καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς καθ’ ἡμᾶς χρόνοις αὐθάδεις καὶ μονογώμονες ἦσαν αἱ τῶν ἀρχαίων βασιλέων δυναστεῖαι.«

In Aeschylus »Ἑπτὰ ἐπὶ Θήβας« (»Seven against Thebes«), wo beide fallen, Eteokles in command von Thebai u. sein Bruder Polynices als einer der 7 chiefs, die die Stadt belagern, kommt Herald des Raths u. theilt dem Chorus ⦗sonst answered Antigone u. Ismene⦘ mit das Gutachten u. Schluss des Raths δοκοῦντα (was Rath facienda esse censuit) u. δόξαντα (quae decrevit), δήμου τῆς Καδμείας πόλεως προβούλοι, der Stadtrath von Theben, zusammengesetzt aus den Chiefs seiner vornehmsten gentes. Die Stelle bei Aeschylus:

v. 1007–10: — »Δοκοῦντα καὶ δόξαντ’ ἀπαγγέλλειν με χρὴ Δήμου προβούλοις τῆσδε Καδμείας πόλεως· Ἐτεοκλέα μὲν τόνδ’ ἐπ’ εὐνοίᾳ χθονὸς Θάπτειν ἔδοξε γῆς φίλαις κατασκαφαῖς« etc.

2. ἀγορά established in der heroic period – an assembly of the people. ⦗In Agora gehn u. in Krieg; bei Homer heisst’s vom grollenden Achilles: I, 490, 91 Il.: »Οὔτε ποτ’ εἰς ἀγορὴν πωλέσκετο κυδιάνειραν, (den Mann ehrend) οὔτε ποτ’ ἐς πόλεμον«. »Er ging weder in die ruhmvolle (den Mann ehrende) Agora, Noch in die Schlacht«.⦘

Die agora – spätere Einrichtung als der Council of chiefs ⦗der früher wie bei Iroquois mit ἀγορά sofar verbunden, als die Volksleute (auch Weiber) dort reden konnten u. immer Masse anwesend⦘, hatte power to adopt or reject public measures submitted by the council. Die agora – bei Homer u. in Greek Tragedians – has same characteristics which it afterwards maintained in the ecclesia der Athenians u. der comitia curiata der Romans. Im heroic age agora a constant phenomenon among the Greek tribes. ⦗ditto Germans in Upper Status of Barbarism⦘ Jeder konnte sprechen in Agora; sie machte in ancient times meist ihre decision kund durch show of hands.

In den »Schutzflehenden« des Aeschylus — fragt χορός: — »Δήμου κρατοῦσα χεὶρ ὅποι πληθύεται;«\ Antwortet Δαναός: — »Ἔδοξεν Ἀργείοισιν, οὐ διχοῤῥόπως,\ v. 610–623. — Πανδημίᾳ γὰρ χερσὶ δεξιωνύμοις Ἔφριξεν αἰθὴρ, τόνδε κραινόντων λόγον« etc.

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3. Der Basileus. ⦗Die europäischen Gelehrten, meist geborne Fürstenbediente, machen aus dem βασιλεύς Monarch im modernen Sinn. Dagegen Morgan, Yankee Republican; er sagt sehr ironisch, aber true, vom öligen Gladstone: »Mr. Gladstone … presents to his readers ⦗in ›Juventus Mundi‹⦘ the Grecian chiefs of the heroic age as kings and princes, with the superadded quality of ›gentlemen‹, selbst er muss aber zugeben (der „Gutstein“) „on the whole we seem to have the custom or law of primogeniture sufficiently, but not oversharply defined“.«]

⦗Mit Bezug auf die Agora bei Homer sagt Schömann I, 27: »Von förmlicher Abstimmung des Volks ist niemals die Rede: nur durch lautes Geschrei giebt die Versammlung ihren Beifall oder ihr Missfallen über das Vorgetragene zu erkennen, u. wenn es sich um eine Sache handelt, zu deren Ausführung die Mitwirkung des Volkes erforderlich ist, so verräth uns Homer kein Mittel, wie dasselbe gegen seinen Willen dazu gezwungen werden könne.«⦘

Frage: Ging das office of basileus durch hereditary right von Vater auf Sohn über? Im Lower Status of Barbarism das office of chief hereditary in a gens, d.h. vacancy, when occurring, filled from the members of the gens. When descent in female line – wie bei den Iroquois – an own brother meist elected to succeed the deceased chief; wenn in der male line – wie bei Ojibwas u. Omahas – the oldest son. In the absence of objections to the person, such became the rule; aber das elective principle remained. Also blosse faktische Nachfolge des ältesten Sohns od. eines der Söhne (wenn mehre) beweist also nicht »hereditary right«; because by usage he was in the probable line of succession by a free election from a constituency. Presumption daher für die Grecians, entsprechend ihren gentile institutions, either für free election od. a confirmation of the office by the people through their recognized organizations, wie bei Roman rex. In diesem Fall konnte der s.g. Nachfolger office nicht antreten ohne Election od. confirmation, u. die power (Seitens des Volks) to elect or confirm schloss ein right to depose.

Was die berühmte Stelle in Ilias, l. II, v. 203–6 angeht (worauf auch Grote seine »royalistische« Anschauung gründet):

»Οὐ μέν πως πάντες βασιλεύσομεν ἐνθάδ’ Ἀχαιοί· Οὐκ ἀγαθὸν πολυκοιρανίη· εἷς κοίρανος ἔστω, Εἷς βασιλεὺς, ᾧ ἔδωκε Κρόνου παῖς ἀγκυλομήτεω ⦗Σκῆπτρόν τ’ ἠδὲ θέμιστας, ἵνα σφίσιν ἐμβασιλεύῃ.⦘«,

so erstens zu bemerken: Agamemnon – für den Odysseus in obiger Stelle spricht – erscheint in Ilias nur als der principal warchief, commanding an army before a besieged city. Der Vers in brackets not found in several Ms., z. B. nicht im commentary v. Eustathius. Ulysses hält hier keine Vorlesung über eine Regierungsform, königliche od. andre, sondern verlangt »Gehorsam« an chief-warrior im Kriegsdienst. Considering, dass die Griechen vor Troja nur qua Heer erscheinen, geht’s in der Agora demokratisch genug zu. Achilles, wenn er von »Geschenken«, i.e. Austheilung der Beute spricht, macht stets zum Vertheiler weder den Agamemnon, noch einen andern βασιλεύς, sondern »die Söhne der Achäer«, das Volk. Die Prädicate »διογενεῖς« od. »διοτρεφεῖς« beweisen auch nichts, da jede gens von einem Gott herstammt, die tribe-chiefs gens schon von »vornehmerem« Gott (hier Zeus); selbst die persönlich Unfreien – wie der Sauhirt Eumäus u. Rinderhirt Philoitios sind δῖοι u. θεῖοι, u. dies in Odyssee, also in viel späterer Zeit als die der Ilias; der Name ἥρως wird in selber Odyssee auch dem Herold Mulios, dem blinden Sänger Demodokos beigelegt; etc. Κοίρανος, was Odysseus v. Agamemnon neben βασιλεύς anwendet, heisst auch nur Befehlshaber im Krieg dort. Βασιλεία, angewandt v. den griech. Schriftstellern für das homerische Königthum (weil generalship his chief feature) mit βουλή u. agora ist – Sorte militärischer Demokratie.

Im heroischen Zeitalter lebten die Grecian tribes in walled cities; Bevölkerungszahl stieg durch field agriculture, Manufacturindustrie, flocks u. herds; new offices required u. some separation of their functions; a new municipal system was growing; period of incessant military strife for the possession of the most desirable areas; mit increase of property wuchs the aristocratic element in society, was Hauptursache der disturbances in Athenian Society von Zeit des Theseus bis zu Solon u. Cleisthenes.

Während dieser Periode u. bis zur final abolition des βασιλεύς-office einige Zeit vor der 1sten Olympiade (776 B.C.) wurde office des βασιλεύς more prominent u. powerful than das irgendeiner andern Person in ihrer früheren Erfahrung. Functions of Priest u. Judge attached to or inherent in the office; er scheint ex officio a member of the council of chiefs. Powers of general in Feld u. Garnison in der walled city, gab ihm Mittel ebenso Einfluss in civil affairs zu gewinnen; scheint aber nicht dass er civil functions besass. Auf Seite des βασιλεύς entwickelt sich nothwendig tendency to usurp additional powers, in beständigem Kampf mit dem council of chiefs, representative of the gentes. ⦗Hence endlich das office abgeschafft v. den Athenern.⦘

Unter den Spartan tribes früh Einrichtung des Ephorats to limit power of βασιλεῖς. ⦗Die βουλή blieb die supreme power, unterstützt durch agora im homer. Zeitalter⦘

Thucydides sagt I, c. 13: »Δυνατωτέρας δὲ γενομένης τῆς Ἑλλάδος, καὶ τῶν χρημάτων τὴν κτῆσιν ἔτι μᾶλλον ἢ πρότερον ποιουμένης, τὰ πολλὰ τυραννίδες ἐν ταῖς πόλεσι καθίσταντο, τῶν προσόδων (Einkünfte) μειζόνων γιγνομένων· (πρότερον δὲ ἦσαν ἐπὶ ῥητοῖς γέρασι (mit festgesetzten powers) πατρικαὶ (gentiles) βασιλεῖαι) ναυτικά τε ἐξηρτύετο ἡ Ἑλλὰς,καὶ τῆς θαλάσσης [μᾶλλον] ἀντείχοντο.«

Aristoteles. Politics. III, 14: »βασιλείας μὲν οὖν εἴδη (Arten) ταῦτα τέτταρα τὸν ἀριθμόν, μία μὲν ἡ περὶ τοὺς ἡρωϊκοὺς χρόνους· αὕτη δ’ ἦν ἑκόντων [μέν] (von Freien, over a free people), ἐπὶ τισὶ δὲ (in einigen aber) ὡρισμένων· στρατηγὸς γὰρ ἦν καὶ δικαστὴς ὁ βασιλεὺς καὶ τῶν πρὸς [τοὺς] θεοὺς κύριος (Hauptpriester). Δευτέρα δὲ ἡ βαρβαρική αὕτη δ’ ἐστὶν ἐκ γένους ἀρχὴ δεσποτικὴ κατὰ νόμον. Τρίτη (die 3te Form) δὲ ἣν αἰσυμνητείαν προσαγορεύουσιν· αὕτη δ’ [ἐστὶν] αἱρετὴ τυραννίς (Wahltyrannei). Τετάρτη δ’ ἡ Λακωνικὴ [τούτων]· αὕτη δ’ ἐστὶν, ὡς εἰπεῖν ἁπλῶς, στρατηγία (generalship) κατὰ γένος ἀϊδιος (erbliche generalship) «. Aristoteles giebt dem βασιλεύς keine civil functions. ⦗Was die richterliche function angeht, muss sie wie bei den alten Germanen gedeutet werden, als Vorsteher des Gerichts, welches Versammlung ist; der Vorsitzer stellt die Frage, ist aber nicht der Urtheilfinder⦘

Die Tyrannis war usurpation, erhielt nie a permanent footing in Greece, galt stets ihnen als illegitim; seine Tödtung galt für verdienstvoll.

Cleisthenes rejected the βασιλεύς office; hielt council of chiefs bei in elective senate u. die agora im people (ecclesia); elective archon folgte bei den Athenern dem βασιλεύς; dieser selbst, in Upper Status of Barbarism, was in dessen Middle Status Teuctli (Great War Soldier verbunden mit functions of Priest) in der Aztec Confederacy; dieser hinwiederum in Lower Status of Barbarism der Great War Soldier wie z. B. der Iroquois Confederacy u. dieser selbst entsprang aus dem common war-chief des tribe.

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Pt. II. Ch. X. Institution of Grecian Political Society.

Aus der failure der gentile institutions to meet the now complicated wants of society, gradually all civil powers entzogen den gentes, phratries u. tribes u. diese übertragen auf new constituencies. Das eine system went gradually out, das andere gradually in, the two for a part of the time existing side by side.

Stockaded village usual home of the tribe in Lower Status of Barbarism; im Middle Status joint-tenement houses of adobe bricks and stone, in the nature of fortresses; im Upper Status cities surrounded mit ring embankments, schliesslich mit walls of dressed stone, mit towers, parapets, gates, designed to protect all alike and to be defended by the common strength. Cities of this grade imply the existence of a stable u. developed field agriculture, possession of domestic animals in flocks and herds, of merchandise in masses u. of property in houses u. lands. A necessity generally arose for magistrates u. judges, military u. municipal officers of different grades, with a mode of raising and supporting military levies which would require public revenues. Dies alles machte dem »council of chiefs« das Regieren schwer. – Die Militairgewalt, erst devolved upon βασιλεύς jezt auf generals u. captains under greater restrictions; judicial power jezt bei Athenians exercised durch archons u. dicasts; die magisterial powers devolved upon municipal magistrates. Nach u. nach several powers by differentiation taken von der sum of powers des original council of chiefs, soweit sie vom Volk auf letzteren übergegangen waren.

Diese Zeit des Uebergangs erscheint bei Thucydides (lib. I, 2–13) u. other writers als Zeit fortwährender disorders von conflict of authority u. abuse of powers not yet well defined u. als failure des old systems of government; auch Bedürfniss v. written law für blose usages u. customs dadurch nöthig geworden. Diese transition dauerte centuries.

Dem Theseus v. den Athenern first attempt to subvert the gentile organization zugeschrieben; man muss ihn betrachten als Namen für eine Periode od. Series of events.

⦗Die Bevölkerung v. Attica (Böckh) in seiner blühenden Zeit about ½ Million; davon mehr als ⅔, – nämlich 365,000 Sklaven, ausserdem etwa 45,000 angesiedelte Fremde, bleibt für die freie bürgerliche Bevölkerung – 90,000!⦘

⦗Nach Schömann: Attika in mehre kleine Fürstenthümer getheilt; die Alten (Strabo l. IX, Plutarch: Theseus c. 24, 32, 36) nennen 12 Staaten; in manchem dieser 12 nicht eine, sondern mehrere Stadt u. Städtchen. Die Sage lässt den Theseus Land u. Volk unter der Regierung eines einzigen Fürsten vereinen, Athen zum Sitz der Centralgewalt machen, den Theilregierungen Ende machen.⦘

Theseus angeblich Basileus v. Athen in der 2. Hälfte des 13 Jhdts B.C.

Vor Theseus (sieh Schoemann) lebte Attic Volk in cities ⦗12 angegeben nach Schömann, als ebensoviel independent Wohnsitze u. Territorien der 12 phratries⦘, bildeten independent tribes, jeder mit eignem Territorium wo the people localized, eignen council houses u. prytaneums, aber confederated for mutual protection u. elected Basileus als general commander of their common forces. Aber (sieh Thucydides, u. ähnlich bei Plutarch), sobald Theseus Basileus wurde, überredete er sie to break up the council-houses u. magistracies ihrer verschiednen Städte, u. come into relation with Athens, mit einem council-house (βουλευτήριος) u. einem πρυτανεῖον. ⦗Letzteres ein öffentliches Gebäude, worin das heilige Feuer unterhalten wurde, u. die Prytanen od. Vorsitzenden des Senats wohnten.⦘ So die 4 Tribes brought unter Theseus to coalesce into one people. ⦗Sagt Plutarch in „Theseus“ c. 24: »Die Bewohner Atticas wohnten bisher zerstreut u. konnten nur mit Mühe für gemeinsame Angelegenheiten zusammengebracht werden (dies zeigt, dass sie confederirt waren, bevor sie coalesced), ja bisweilen waren sie in Streit u. Fehden mit einander gerathen. Theseus vereinigte nun alle in einer Stadt u. bildete aus ihnen eine einzige Gemeine eines einzigen Staats. Zu diesem Zweck reiste er bei den einzelnen Gemeinen u. Geschlechtern umher, u. suchte ihre Einstimmung zu erhalten etc. Den Mächtigen versprach er Aufhebung der kgl. Gewalt etc« u. c. 25: »Um die Stadt noch mehr zu vergrössern, rief er Jederman unter der Zusicherung gleicher Rechte hinzu, u. er liess dabei, wie man sagt, den bekannten Heroldsruf: ›Hieher kommt all’ ihr Völker!‹ verkünden; denn er wollte in Athen einen allgemeinen Völkerverein (lies Verein der Attischen tribes) stiften. Damit aber die herbeigeströmte gemischte Menge ⦗Phantasie des Plutarch, gab damals keine solche »Mengen«⦘ nicht Unordnung u. Verwirrung in den Freistaat brächte, theilte er das Volk zuerst in Edle, Landbauern u. Handwerker. Den Edlen übertrug er die Aufsicht über die religiösen Angelegenheiten, u. das Recht, öffentliche Aemter zu besetzen (?), er ernannte sie zu Lehrern der Gesetze, zu Auslegern der göttlichen u. menschlichen Rechte, stellte sie aber den übrigen Bürgern gleich, indem die Edlen zwar durch Ansehen, die Landbauern aber durch Nützlichkeit u. die Handwerker durch Menge den Vorzug zu haben schienen. Dass er zuerst wie Aristoteles sagt, „sich zum Volk hinneigte“ u. die Alleinherrschaft aufgab, scheint auch Homer zu bezeugen, welcher im Schiffsverzeichniss (2t Buch der Ilias) die Athener eine Gemeine, Demos, nennt.«⦘

Theseus theilte Volk in 3 classes, irrespective of gentes, Eupatridae (well-born), Geomori (husbandmen) u. »Demiurgi« (artisans). Die principal offices assigned to first class, both in the civil administration u. priesthood. Diese classification nicht nur recognition of property u. aristocratic element im government der society, sondern direct movement gegen die governing power der gentes. Intention offenbar to unite the chiefs of the gentes mit ihren Familien u. die men of wealth in the several gentes in a class by themselves, with the right to hold the principal offices in which the powers of society were lodged. Die separation des remainder in 2 grosse classes wieder Verletzung der gentes. Aber gelang nicht. Die jetzt s.g. Eupatrides waren wahrscheinlich die men der gentes vorher called into office. Dies scheme brach down, weil es in fact no transfer of power von gentes, phratries u. tribes zu den classes u. weil such classes inferior den gentes as a basis of a system.

⦗Die Aeusserung v. Plutarch, dass »die Niedrigen u. Armen bereitwillig der Aufforderung des Theseus folgten« u. der von ihm citirte Ausspruch des Aristoteles, dass Theseus »sich zum Volk hinneigte« scheinen aber trotz Morgan darauf hinzuweisen, dass die chiefs der gentes etc durch Reichthum etc bereits in Interessenconflict mit der Masse der gentes gerathen, was unvermeidlich bei Privateigenthum in Häusern, lands, Heerden, verbunden mit monogamischen Familien.⦘

Vor 776 B.C. (erste Olympiade) Amt des Basileus in Athen abgeschafft, an dessen Stelle archonship, wie es scheint erblich in gens, die ersten 12 archons genannt Medontidae, von Medon, angeblichem Sohn des Kodrus, des letzten Basileus. (Nach Morgan lebenslänglich die archonship, hereditary in gens, also nicht hereditary im modernen Sinn.)

711 B.C. Archonship beschränkt auf 10 Jahre, bestowed by free election auf die würdigst gehaltne Person; hier Anfang der historischen Periode, mit election to highest office in the gift of the people.

683 B.C. Office of archon made elective annually, their number increased to nine, blieb so bis Ende der athen. Demokratie;

1. Archon Eponymus, von seinem Namen die designation des Jahrs was derived; er determined all disputes relative to the family, gentile u. phratric relations; was legal protector of orphans u. widows.

2. Archon Basileus; had competence in complaints respecting offences against the religious sentiments and homicide.

3. Archon Polemarch (in times prior to Kleisthenes) leader of military force u. judge in disputes between citizens u. non-citizens.

4. Die 6 andern Archonten hiessen Thesmothetae.

Erst war der attische archon chief of gens u. his office hereditary in gens; when descent changed v. female to male line the sons of the deceased chief in the lines of the election; Athener gaben später dann den alten Titel des chief of gens – Archon – dem highest magistrate, machten office elective, irrespective of gens etc., erst lebenslänglich, dann 10, dann 1 Jahr.

624 B.C. Draco had framed a code of laws for the Athenians; shows that usages u. customs were to be superseded by written laws. Athenians were in the stage wo lawgivers appear and legislation is in a scheme or in gross, under the sanction of a personal name.

594 B.C. Solon comes into Archonship. – In seiner Zeit had schon come in existence der Areopagus, bestehend aus den Ex-archons mit power to try criminals u. censorship over morals, zugleich mit Anzahl neuer offices in military, naval u. administrative services. – Wichtigste event: Errichtung der ναυκραρίαι (Naukraries), 12 in jedem tribe, 48 in all: jede Naukrarie a local circumscription of householders, aus der levies drawn into military u. naval service u. from which taxes wahrscheinlich collected. Die naucrary was the incipient deme or township. Nach Böckh bestand sie schon vor Solon’s Zeit, da die presiding officers der naucraries (πρυτάνεις τῶν ναυκράρων) schon mentioned früher. Aristoteles schreibt sie dem Solon zu, weil dieser sie in seine Constitution aufnahm. – 12 naucraries bildeten a τριττύς (trittys) a larger territorial circumscription, nicht necessarily contiguous; bildete germ of the »county« (?). Council of chiefs (βουλή) dauerte fort, aber jetzt daneben agora, der Court des Areopagus u. die 9 archons. It doubtless had the general administration der finances.

Als Solon zur archonship came, social state bösartig, in Folge des struggle for the possession of property. Ein Theil der Athener in Sklaverei gefallen, durch Verschuldung, die Person des Schuldners being liable to enslavement in default of payment; andre had mortgaged their lands u. were unable to remove the encumbrances. Ausser body von Gesetzen, wovon einige neu, but corrective of the principal financial difficulties, erneuerte Solon Project des Theseus die Gesellschaft in classes zu theilen, diesmal aber nicht nach callings, sondern nach amount of their property; er theilte das Volk in 4 classes, nach measure of wealth.

⦗Nach Plutarch „Solon“ c. 18: Iste Classe: Grundertrag = 500 Mass trockner u. flüssiger Früchte. (Gewöhnliches Mass des Getreides ein Medimnus (etwas über 15/16 des Berliner Scheffels), der Flüssigkeiten ein Metretes (etwas mehr als 33 Berliner Quart).) Wer dazu gehörte 500 hert-Scheffler. IIte Classe: die 300 Mass erndteten; hiessen zur Ritterschaft Steuernde. IIIte Klasse: die 200 Mass v. einer der beiden Früchte; Zweispänner (ζευγῖται), wohl vom Gespann Maulthiere, das sie hielten. (Dies geschah nachdem er Schätzung der Bürger verordnet.) Alle andern die IVte Klasse der Fröhner (Theten). Erhielt den 3 ersten Klassen, i.e. den Vermögenden, den Zugang »zu allen obrigkeitlichen Aemtern«; Theten (4t Kl.) hatten kein Amt zu verwalten, hatten aber an der Regierung Theil als Mitglieder der Volksversammlungen u. Gerichtshöfe. (Dadurch bekamen sie entscheidende Macht um so mehr »da Solon auch bei solchen Sachen, worüber die Obrigkeiten zu erkennen hatten, eine Berufung an das Volksgericht erlaubte.«)⦘

Gentes weakened hierdurch, u. ihre decadence eingeleitet. Aber sofern classes composed of persons substituted for gentes composed of persons, government still founded upon persons u. upon relations purely personal. Die erste Classe war allein eligible to the high offices, 2te zum Reiterdienst, 3te zur Infantrie, 4te zu leicht bewaffneten soldiers; letzte die Majorität; they paid no taxes, aber in der popular assembly hatten sie vote bei Wahl aller Magistrate u. Officiere, mit power to bring them to an account; could adopt or reject all public measures. Alle freemen, wenn auch nicht connected with a gens u. tribe, now brought, to a certain extent, into the government, became citizens u. members of the public assembly.

Die Iste (vornehmste Klasse) nicht liable to military service.

⦗Neben dem Areopag einRath (Plutarch lässt ihn falsch v. Solon gründen, er nahm nur die alte βουλή in seine Constitution auf, worin er aus jedem der 4 tribes 100 Männer wählen liess, Vorberather des Volks, so dass nichts ohne ihre vorherige Prüfung an die Gemeine gelange).⦘

Das territorial element was partially incorporated durch die naucraries, wo wahrscheinlich was an enrollment of citizens u. of their property to form a basis for military levies u. taxation. – Die gentes, phratries, tribes blieben in full vitality, though mit diminished powers – a transitional condition.

Von der disturbed condition der Grecian tribes u. den unavoidable movements des people in der traditionary time vor Solon, viele Persons transferred themselves v. one nation to another, lost so connection mit ihrer eignen gens ohne Verbindung mit einer andern zu gewinnen; dies wiederholt von Zeit zu Zeit, durch personal adventure, spirit of trade, exigencies of warfare, bis considerable number with their posterity in every tribe unconnected with any gens. All such persons without the pale of government. Says Grote: „The phratries and gentes probably never at any time included the whole population of the country – and the population not included tended to become larger and larger in the times anterior to Kleisthenes, wie nach ihm.“ Schon zur Zeit des Lykurg bedeutende immigration nach Griechenland von den Inseln des Mittelmeers u. den Ionischen Städten seiner östlichen Küste; wenn sie mit families kamen, brachten sie a fragment of a new gens mit sich; blieben aber aliens unless the gens admitted into a tribe, was wahrscheinlich häufig geschah; explains the unusual number of gentes in Greece. The poorer class would not be admitted either as a gens in einen tribe od. adopted in eine gens eines tribes. Zur Zeit des Theseus schon, aber mehr speciell in der des Solon Zahl der unattached class – exclusive of slaves – had become large; diese class of persons a growing element of dangerous discontent. Wurden durch Theseus u. Solon admitted to citizienship through the classes, aber blieben excluded von den verharrenden gentes u. phratries. In den Council konnten nur kommen 400, je aus einem der 4 tribes (den new probouleutic or pre-considering senate); selbe conditions nach old custom of eligibility für die 9 Archonten, also auch für Areopag. ⦗die tribes bestanden nur of gentes u. phratries; wer also ausser diesen, ausser tribe⦘ Also nur in public assembly (ecclesia) konnte ein Athenian, [der] nicht ein member jener tribes Zulass erhalten, aber eben dadurch war er citizen, nahm Theil an Wahl der Archonten, nahm Theil in der jährlichen decision ihrer accountability, konnte claim redress for wrong von den archons in his own person, während ein alien dies nur konnte durch intervention of an avouching citizen or Prostatês. Alle persons, whatever their grade or fortune, befanden sich politisch auf level with der 4ten Klasse der thetes. Zugleich tended the policy of Solon to invite industrious settlers from other parts of Greece to Athens. Dies one of the reasons of the failure of gentile organization. ⦗Diese settlers alle Griechen; mit written language hatte der dialectic Unterschied nicht mehr Macht zur Barrière v. Scheidung (Unverständlichkeit) zu werden; andrerseits migration, Seefahrt u. alle mit commerce verbundne Personenbewegung – nicht fassbar in auf gens gegründete society.⦘

Andrerseits: Schwierigkeit gens, phratry u. tribe local zusammenzuhalten. Früher hatte die gens its lands in common, the phratries certain lands in common for religious purposes u. wahrscheinlich auch die tribes other lands in common. Wenn sie sich established in town or country, settled sie neben einander by gentes, phratries, tribes, gemäss ihrer social organization. Jede gens in the main by itself, nicht alle ihre Glieder, denn 2 gentes representirt in jeder Familie, but the body who propagated the gens. The gentes derselben Phratry suchten local zusammenzubleiben, u. so die several phratries einer tribe. Aber zur Zeit des Solon lands u. houses owned by individuals in severalty, mit power of alienation of lands, but not of houses, out of the gens. So immer schwieriger to keep the members of a gens locally zusammen, wegen der shifting relations of persons to land u. von der creation of new property by its members in other localities. The unity of their social system was becoming unstable in place u. in character. ⦗Abgesehn v. locality: Die Eigenthumsdifferenz in selber gens hatte Einheit ihrer Interessen in Antagonismus ihrer members verwandelt; ausserdem war neben Land u. Vieh Geldcapital entscheidend wichtig geworden, auch die Entwicklung der Sklaverei!⦘

Nur die unsettled condition u. incessant warfare der tribes (Attic), from their settlement in Attica bis zur Zeit des Solon hatten die alte gentile Organization so long aufrecht erhalten können. – The township mit its fixed property u. its inhabitants for the time being yielded the element of permanence now wanting in the gens.

Zur Zeit des Solon Athenians already a civilized people, had been so for 2 centuries: bedeutend development of useful arts, commerce at sea became a national interest, advancement of agriculture u. manufacture, commencement of written composition in verse; aber ihre institutions of government still gentile, of the type of the Later Period of Barbarism; beinah ein Jahrhundert nach Solon full of disorders.

509. B.C. Kleisthenes’ constitution, (Kern derselben lag in der naucrary) dauerte bis zu Verlust der Unabhängigkeit Athens. Theilte Attica in 100 demes or townships (wards), jedes umschrieben by metes u. bounds, u. distinguished by a name. Jeder citizen hatte sich selbst einzuregistriren u. to cause an enrollment of his property in the deme wo er resided. Dies enrollment evidence u. foundation of his civil privileges. The deme displaced the naucrary; its inhabitants had powers of local self-government. Diese demotae wählten einen δήμαρχος who had the custody of the public register, also the power to convene the demotae for the election of magistrates and judges, for revising the registry of the citizens, u. enrolling such as became of age during the year. Sie elected a treasurer u. provided for the assessment and collection of taxes u. for furnishing the quota of troops required from the deme für state service. They also elected 30 dicasts or judges, trying all causes arising in the deme below a certain sum; ausserdem had deme its own temple, religious worship u. own priest, der also elected by the deme. All registered citizens free u. equal except equal eligibility to higher offices.

Second member der organic territorial series: 10 demes, united in a larger geographical district, was called a local tribe – φῦλον τοπικόν. (So wurde die römische tribus – ursprünglich ⅓ of the people composed of 3 tribes – verwandelt aus numerical quality in a local designation.) Each district named after an Attic hero; einige der 10 demes waren detached (nicht locally contiguous) wahrscheinlich in consequence of the local separation of portions des original consanguine tribe who desired to have their deme incorporated in the district of their immediate kinsmen. ⦗Morgan nennt die topischen Phylen counties, Schoemann aber nennt die Unterabtheilungen der topischen Phylen, auf Wohnsitze u. Theile der Stadt u. Landschaft gegründet, Gaue (δῆμοι) oder Ortschaften (κῶμαι). Er sagt von Kleisthenes: Er theilte das gesammte Land in 100 Verwaltungsbezirke, hiessen δῆμοι u. die einzelnen Demen wurden theils nach den kleinen Städten od. Flecken, theils nach ausgezeichneten Geschlechtern benannt; die nach Geschlechtern benannten Demen vorzugsweis in dem Theil des Landes, der der Phyle der Geleonten zugewiesen (Hauptstadt Athen u. ihre nächste Umgebung, wo also die meisten u. bedeutendsten Adelsfamilien lebten, wo ihre Güter gelegen). Lang vor Klisthenes gab es Bezirke, Städte u. Flecke, die sich Demen nannten. Zahl der Demen stieg zuletzt auf 174; doch erinnerte an die ursprüngliche Zahl die 100 Heroen, die Eponymen der 100 Demen. Die Phylen Verbände von 10 Demen.⦘

Jede Phyle od. District [named] nach an Attic Hero. Die Einwohner wählten einen φύλαρχος, der die Cavallerie commandirte, ταξίαρχος commandirte foot-soldiers u. στρατηγός commandirte both; jeder District 5 triremes zu liefern, wählten wahrscheinlich as many τρῐήραρχος to command them. Cleisthenes increased Senate to 500, assigned 50 to each district; elected by its inhabitants. (Attica kaum 40 □ miles gross.)

Third u. last member der territorial series der Athenische Staat, aus 10 local tribes bestehend, represented by Senate, ecclesia, court of Areopagus, archons, judges, elected military u. naval commanders.

Um Staatssbürger zu sein, musste man Mitglied eines Deme sein; um in Senat gewählt zu werden od. zum Commando einer Division v. army or navy, durch a topic phyle gewählt werden. The relations to gens or phratry ceased to govern the duties of an Athenian as a citizen. The coalescence of the people into bodies politic in territorial areas now complete.

Also deme, phyle, u. Staat an Stelle von Gens, phratry, tribe etc. Sie blieben (letztre) jedoch for centuries as a pedigree and lineage u. fountains of religious life.

No executive officer existed under the system. The president of the Senate, elected by lot for a single day, presided over the popular assembly ⦗konnte during the year nicht zur selben Würde wiedergewählt werden⦘ and held the keys of the citadel and the treasury.

Sparta retained the office of Basileus in period of civilization; a dual generalship, hereditary in a particular family; the powers of government co-ordinated between the Gerousia or Council, popular assembly, 5 Ephors (elected annually, die Ephors mit powers analogous den Roman tribunes). Die Basileis commanded the army and als chief priests offered the sacrifices to the gods.

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⦗Mit Bezug auf die 4 tribes des attischen Volks: 1) Geleontes; 2) Hopletes (ὁπλίτης schwerbewaffneter Infanterist, Soldat mit Panzer u. Schild, der den ganzen Körper deckt. ὅπλον Zeug, Werkzeug, Geräth, bes. zur Ausrüstung der Soldaten: Waffe, ferner: der grosse Schild u. Panzer der Schwerbewaffneten; heisst auch männliches Glied; ὅπλομαι = ὁπλίζομαι u. ὁπλίζω zubereiten, in Stand setzen v. Speisen u. Getränken; sieh Homer: ausrüsten von Schiff (Odyssee), waffnen etc) ;

3. Aegikoreis , Ziegenhirte von αἴξ (gen. αἰγός Ziege, von ἀίσσω sich schnell bewegen) u. κορέννυμι = (Αἰγικορεῖς, αἰγικορεύς der Ziegenhirt) jonisch = κορέω sättigen, satt machen;

4. Argadeis, ἐργάδεις = ἐργάται (Plutarch) ἐργάτης Arbeiter, Feldarbeiter, Taglöhner. ἐργάω u. medium = ἐργάζομαι (ἔργον Werk, That) ich arbeite, bin thätig, bes. treibe Ackerbau.

Nach Schömann: Hopletes Phyle, die hellenischen Einwandrer, die einst unter Xuthus für die Attiker gegen die euböischen Chalkodontiden gestritten u. dafür die Tetrapolis auf der nach Euböa schauenden Küste u. beträchtlichen Theil des angrenzenden Landes zum Wohnsitz erhielten; – das benachbarte Hochland mit Brilessos u. Parnes bis zum Kithäron: der Phyle der Aegikoreis: Sitz, weil hier die Beschaffenheit des Landes Viehzucht zur Hauptbeschäftigung machte, in diesem Bezirk also Ziegenhirten die zahlreichsten.

Argadeis Phyle: auf dem vom Brilessos nach West u. Süd sich hinstreckenden Theil des Landes, wo die 3 grossen Ebnen liegen, die thriasische, das Pedion od. die Pedias u. die Mesogäa. (Auch die Phyle der Geleontes hatte hier ihren Sitz. Der Hauptsitz des Adels Athen (»εὐπατρίδαι οἱ αὐτὸ τὸ ἄστυ οἰκοῦντες«). Was Schoemann weiter sagt: dass »Hauptstadt u. nächste Umgebung« bekamen daher den Namen Geleontes; er hiess der Geleontenbezirk, und alle, die in diesem Bezirk wohnten, ob Adliche od. Unadliche, wurden der Phyle der Geleonten zugezählt, – so zeigt dies, welchen Begriff dieser Schulmeister von der Natur einer Phyle od. tribe hat.

Als nach Sturz der Pisistratiden der Adel unter Isagoras eine Zeitlang den Sieg gewann, das Volk in Gefahr, seine Freiheit zu verlieren, wenn Klisthenes nicht die Adelspartei besiegt. (Darauf bezieht sich Herod. V 69. »τὸν δῆμον πρότερον (vor Klist. unter Isagoras) ἀπωσμένον πάντων«)

Kleisthenes vermehrte erst die Zahl des Volks durch Einbürgerung vieler in Attica ansässiger Nichtbürger od. Metöken, wozu auch die Freigelassenen gehörten. (Arist. Polit. III, 1, 10.) Seine Abschaffung der Eintheilung in 4 Geschlechtsphylen, tribes, theils nöthig, weil in die alte Eintheilung die Neuaufgenommenen nicht einrangirt werden konnten, andrerseit aber verlor dadurch Adel den Einfluss, den er bisher (als chiefs of gentes) in den ländlichen Districten geübt. Klisthenes besetzte mehre u. zwar bedeutende Aemter, namentlich das Collegium der 9 Archonten statt wie bisher durch Volkswahl – durch Loos, aber diese Losung fand nur unter Bewerbern statt aus den 3 oberen u. für Archonten nur aus der ersten Klasse statt.

Kurz nach den Reformen des Kleisthenes Perserkriege, worin sich die Athener aller Klassen ruhmvoll bewährt. Aristides setzte nun durch, dass fortan die Schranken aufgehoben, wodurch die ärmeren (rather niedrigeren) Bürger von den Staatsämtern ausgeschlossen. Plutarch, Aristides c. 22: »γράφει ψήφισμα, κοίινὴν εἶναι τὴν πολιτείαν καὶ τοὺς ἄρχοντας ἐξ Ἀθηναίων πάντων αἱρεῖσθαι.« (Dies letztere Wort, nach Schömann, hier nicht wählen, sondern losen, so auch bei Pausanias I, 15, 4.) Doch blieben gewisse Aemter nur den Pentakosiomedimnen, den 500 Schefflern, zugänglich. In der 4ten Klasse auch Wohlhabende, die nur nicht so viel Landbesitz hatten als der Census der 3 oberen Klassen erforderte. Und diese Art des Wohlstands seit Solon’s Zeit bedeutend gewachsen: Handel u. Gewerb in rascher Entwicklung, gewannen nicht weniger Bedeutung als Landbau. Ausserdem hatte Krieg – Attika wiederholt v. den Perserschaaren verheert – namentlich viele Landbesitzer ruinirt, manche verarmt, unfähig ihre niedergebrannten Höfe wieder aufzubauen, mussten sich ihres Besitzthums entäussern, waren so in 4te Klasse gesunken; auch diesen die Aenderung des Aristides zu gut kommend. On the whole aber hatte sein Gesetz die Wirkung die einseitige Bevorzugung der ländlichen Grundbesitzer aufzuheben u. Gewerbtreibenden u. Kapitalisten ohne Landbesitz Zutrtitt zu den Aemtern zu gewähren.

Pericles: Solange nichts bezahlt für den Besuch der Volkversammlungen hielten die Aermeren sich meist gern davon fern. Von Pericles an die Zahlung; erst – unter ihm – für Besuch in Volksversammlung u. Funktion in Gerichten nur ein Obol, spätere Demagogen erhöhten sie aufs 3fache. Die wohlhabenden Klassen waren für Frieden, die Aermeren gingen leichter auf die kriegerische Politik des Perikles ein.

Ephialtes – selber Richtung wie Perikles – entzog dem Areopag sein bisheriges Oberaufsichtsrecht über die ganze Staatsverwaltung, liess ihm nur die Blutgerichtsbarkeit. Der Areopag gehörte grössten Theils zur ruheliebenden u. conservativen Partei; statt seiner eingesetzt zur Beaufsichtigung u. Controlle des Raths, der Volksversammlung u. der Magistrate eine neue Behörde – Collegium von 7 Nomophylakes od. Gesetzwächtern; das Volk wurde mit dem Areopag einer aristokratischen Zuchtbevormundungsbehörde entledigt.⦘

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Pt. II. Ch. XI. The Roman Gens.

Bei Einwandrung in Italien v. Latinern, Sabellern, Sabellern u. Umbriern, wahrscheinlich als one people, sie in Besitz of domestic animals u. wahrscheinlich bekannt mit cultur v. cereals u. plants; jedenfalls well advanced in Middle Status of barbarism, u. als sie historisch erscheinen in Upper Status, an Schwelle von Civilization.

Nach Mommsen: „barley, wheat, and spelt gefunden wild growing an der rechten Bank des Euphrat’s, northwest von Anah. Das growth v. barley u. wheat in wild state in Mesopotamien schon erwähnt durch den babylonischen historian Berosus.“ Fick in: „Primitive Unity of Indo-European Languages“, Göttingen, 1873, sagt: „Pasturage foundation … but very slight beginnings of agriculture. Sie waren bekannt mit a few grains, deren Cultivation carried on incidentally in order to gain a supply of milk and flesh. Die material existence des people rested nicht on agriculture. Wenige primitive words beziehn sich auf Agricultur. Diese Words: yava, wild fruit; varka (hoe) (od. plow), rava (sickle); pio (pinsere) bake u. mak, Greek μάσσω which indicates threshing out u. grinding of grain.“

Zur Zeit des Romulus (754–717 B.C. od. 1–37 der Stadt Rom) ⦗Romulus bedeutet hier nicht Person, sondern Zeitperiode, wie bei seinen Nachfolgern ⦘ Latin tribes – on Alban hills u. ranges of the Appenines östlich von Rom – durch Segmentation bereits in 30 independent tribes zerfallen, still united in loose confederacy für mutual protection; ebenso Sabellians, Oscans, Umbrians. Alle, wie ihre nördlichen Nachbarn, Etrusker, organized in gentes.

Zur Zeit v. Rom’s Stiftung (about 753 B.C.) had become agricultural mit flocks of domestic animals, monogamian family, confederacy in form of League. – The Etruskan tribes confederated.

Die Latin tribes, possessed of numerous fortified towns u. country strongholds, spread over the surface of the country for agricultural purposes.

Unter den institutions der Latin tribes bei Beginn der historischen Periode: gentes, curiae u. tribes. Latin gentes of same lineage, Sabine u. other gentes cognate, except Etruscans. Zur Zeit des Tarquinius Priscus, 4ter von Romulus, the organization brought to a numerical scale: 10 gentes to curia, 10 curiae to a tribe, 3 tribes, giebt 30 curiae u. 300 gentes.

Statt confederacy of tribes, composed of gentes u. occupying separate territories makes Romulus them concentrate u. coalesce in one city; dies worked out in 5 generations. Auf u. um Mons Palatinus vereinigte Romulus 100 gentes, organized as a tribe, die Ramnes; dann large body of Sabines added, deren gentes, nachher increased to 100, organized as a 2nd Tribe, Tities (angeblich auf Quirinal); unter Tarquinius Priscus 3d tribe, Luceres, 100 gentes drawn from the surrounding tribes, inclus. Etruscans. – Senate (Council of Chiefs), comitia curiata (assembly of the people) u. military commander (rex). Unter Servius Tullius wurde Senat »patrician«, patrician rank being conferred upon its members u. their posterity; dadurch privileged class created, intrenched first in the gentile u. dann political system, ultimately overthrew the democratic principles inherited von gentes.

Niebuhr, Hermann, Mommsen etc regard the gens as composed of families, während family composed of parts of families, u. gens, nicht family unit des social system.

Man weiss wenig über ältere »social« history of Rom; weil power of gentes bereits übertragen auf new political bodies bevor römische Geschichtschreibung beginnt. Gajus – Institutiones III. 17 – sagt: »Qui sint autem gentiles, primo commentario rettulimus; et cum illic admonuerimus, totum gentilicium jus in desuetudinem abisse, supervacuum est, hoc quoque loco de ea re curiosius tractare.«

Cicero, topica 6. »Gentiles sunt, qui inter se eodem nomine (totem!) sunt. Non est satis. Qui ab ingenuis oriundi sunt. Ne id quidem satis est. Quorum majorum nemo servitutem servivit. Abest etiam nunc. Qui capite non sunt deminuti. Hoc fortasse satis est. Nihil enim video Scaevolam, Pontificem, ad hanc definitionem addidisse.«

Festus: »Gentilis dicitur et ex eodem genere ortus, et is qui simili nomine appellatur.«

Varro: »De lingua latina« lib. VIII, c. 4. »Ut in hominibus quaedam sunt agnationes ac gentilitates, sic in verbis; ut enim ab Aemilio homines orti Aemilii, ac gentiles; sic ab Aemilii nomine declinatae voces in gentilitate nominali; ab eo enim, quod est impositum recto casu Aemilius, [orta Aemilii,] Aemilium, Aemilios, Aemiliorum; et sic reliqua, ejusdem quae sunt stirpis.«

Durch andre Quellen constatirt dass die nur zur gens gehörten who could trace their descent durch males exclusively from an acknowledged ancestor in der gens; musste den »gentile name« haben (dies Cicero).

445 B.C. In address des Roman Tribun Canulejus, on his motion das Gesetz abzuschaffen das verbot intermarriage zwischen patricians u. plebejans, sagte er: (Livius IV, c. 4) »Quid enim in re est aliud, si plebejam patricius duxerit, si patriciam plebejus? Quid juris tandem mutatur? nempe patrem sequuntur liberi.« (Dies involvirt descent in male line) Als praktische Illustration, dass descent in male line: Julia, Schwester des Cajus Julius Caesar, married Marcus Attius Balbus. Ihr Name zeigt, dass sie gehörig zur Julian gens. Ihre Tochter Attia nahm gentile name of her father, belonged to Attian gens. Attia married Cajus Octavius, ward Mutter des Cajus Octavius (i.e. der spätre Augustus). Ihr Sohn nimmt Name des Vaters, belongs to the Octavian gens.

Nach Adams, Roman Antiquities: War nur eine Tochter in family, so called nach Name der gens; so Tullia, Tochter des Cicero; Julia, Tochter des Caesar; Octavia, Schwester des Augustus etc. Sie behielten denselben Namen bei nach Verheirathung. Wenn 2 Töchter, die eine called Major, die andere Minor (wie bei Savages) . Wenn mehr als 2, unterschieden durch ihre Zahl in Prima, Secunda, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, oder softer Tertulla, Quartilla, Quintilla. … Während des blühenden Zustands der Republik, die names der gentes, u. surnames der families, blieben fix u. certain. They were common to all the children der family, descended to their posterity. Changed u. confounded nach subversion of liberty.

So lange wir v. Römern wissen, descent in male line. In allen oben citirten cases persons married out of the gens.

Folgende rights u. obligations der Roman gentes:

1. Mutual rights of succession to the property of deceased gentiles; 2) Possession of common burial place; 3) common religious rites; sacra gentilicia; 4) Obligation not to marry in gens; 5) Common Possession of lands, 6) Reciprocal obligations of help, defence, and redress of injuries; 7) Right to bear the gentile name; 8) Right to adopt strangers into the gens. 9) Right to elect and depose chiefs?

ad 1) 451. B.C. Law of 12 tables promulgated; ancient rule der inheritance unter gentiles bereits superseded; passed to sui heredes (children) u. in default of children to lineal descendants des defunct through males. Gajus , Inst. l. III, 1 u. 2. (wife was co-heiress mit children) Die living children took equally, die children of deceased sons the share of their father equally; the inheritance remained so in the gens; the children of female descendants of the intestate, who belonged to other gentes, were excluded. Wenn no »sui heredes« (ib. lib. III, 9) by same law – the inheritance passed to the Agnates; agnatic kindred all persons able to trace descent through males from same common ancestor with the intestate; vonwegen dieses descent all bore the same gentile name, females wie males, u. were nearer in degree to the deceased als die remaining gentiles. Die Agnates, nearest in degree, hatten Vorzug; 1) brothers u. unmarried sisters; 2) paternal uncles u. unmarried aunts des intestate u.s.w. Aber die children of married sisters ausgeschlossen – weil zu andrer gens gehörig – eben by gentile kinsmen (agnatic), dass ihre relation to intestate nur noch nachweisbar in gentile name; the gentile right predominated über consanguinity, weil das principle, retaining the property in the gens, fundamental. Die Reihenfolge (historische) ist natürlich grade die umgekehrte von der, wie sie in den 12 Tafeln erscheint. 1) die gentiles; 2) die Agnates, worunter die Kinder des intestate nach change of descent v. weiblicher in male line; 3) die Kinder, mit Ausschluss der [übrigen] Agnaten.

Durch Heirath erlitt a female deminutio capitis; i.e. forfeited her agnatic rights; an unmarried sister could inherit, nicht a married, would have transferred the property in andre gens.

Von dem Archaischen erhielt sich am längsten in Rom reversion of property in certain cases to the gentiles (bemerkt auch Niebuhr . – The freedman (Emancipirte) erwarb nicht gentile rights in his master’s gens durch manumission, aber allowed to adopt the gentile name of his patron, so Cicero’s freedman Tyro called: M. Tullius Tyro. Das Gesetz der 12 Tafeln gave the estate eines freedman, der intestate starb, to his former patron) .

ad 2) Im Upper Status of Barbarism – a burial place for the exclusive use of members of the gens. So unter den Romans. z. B. Appius Claudius, chief der Claudian gens, removed from Regili, town der Sabini, nach Rom, wo er Senator wurde, mit seiner gens u. vielen Clienten. Suet., vita Tiberius, c. I sagt: »Patricia gens Claudia … agrum (Theil der state lands) insuper trans Anienem (upon the Anio) clientibus locumque sibi ad sepulturam sub Capitolio, publice accepit.« Er received burial place for the gens nach damaliger custom.

Das family tomb hatte in Zeit v. Julius Caesar noch nicht ganz das der gens superseded: Beweis Quintilius Varus, had lost his army in Germany, destroyed himself, sein Körper fiel in die Hände der Feinde, half burnt. Vellejus Paterculus II, 119: »Vari corpus semiustrum hostilis laceraverat feritas; caput ejus abscisum, latumque ad Maroboduum, et ab eo missum ad Caesarem, gentilitii [tandem] tumuli sepultura honoratum est.«

Cic. de Legibus II, 22. »Iam tanta religio est sepulcrorum (so gross die Heiligkeit der Begräbnisse), ut extra sacra et gentem (ohne religious rites u. Grabstätte der gens) inferri fas negent esse; idque apud majores nostros A. Torquatus in gente Popilia judicavit.« In Cicero’s Zeit das family tomb nahm den Platz ein of that of the gens, as the families in the gentes rose to complete autonomy. –

Vor den 12 Tafeln cremation u. inhumation equally practiced, 12 Tafeln verboten Verbrennen od. Begraben innerhalb der city. Das columbarium (a sepulchre mit niches for urns) would usually accommodate several 100 urns.

ad 3) Sacra privata od. sacra gentilicia, performed by the gens at stated periods. (alle members der gens dazu verpflichtet, ob members by birth, adoption oder adrogation. „ A person was freed from them u. lost the privileges, connected with them, when he lost his gens.“) Cases erwähnt, wo die expension of maintaining these rites, Bürde für gens wurde in Folge der verminderten Anzahl ihrer Glieder. The sacred rites – public and private – exclusiv under pontifical regulation, not subject to civil cognizance.

Colleges of Pontiffs, curiones u. augurs, with elaborate system of worship unter diesen priesthoods, became established, aber priesthood in the main elective; jedes Familienhaupt auch priest des household.

In early times of Rome hatten viele gentes their own sacellum (small unroofed sanctuary; a chapel; sacellum est locus parvus deo sacratus cum ara (Trebatius in Gell. [VI,] c. 12); Sacella dicuntur loca diis sacrata sine tecto, Festus) für performance ihrer religious rites; several gentes had each special sacrifices to perform transmitted from generation to generation, considered obligatory, Nautii to Minerva, Fabii to Hercules etc.

ad 4) gentile regulations were customs having the forms of law; so Verbot der intermarriage in gens; scheint zu Rom nicht später in Gesetz verwandelt worden zu sein; aber die Roman genealogy beweist die rule – marriage out of gens. Zeigt sich darin ferner: ohne Ausnahme: a woman by her marriage forfeited her agnatic right, weil became ex-gens. (sollte property aus eigner gens in die ihres husband nicht transfer.) Aus selbem Grund: exclusion der Kinder of a female from all rights of inheritance from a maternal uncle or grandfather; da sie ausser gens heirathet, ihre children of the gens of the father – also nicht von ihrer gens, also dort auch nichts zu erben.

ad 5): Common property of lands, allgemein unter barbarous tribes, darum natürlich bei Latin tribes; von sehr früher Periode erscheint Theil ihrer lands held in severalty by individuals; at first sicher nur possessory right to lands in actual occupation, was sich schon im Lower Status of barbarism findet.

Unter den rustic Latin tribes, lands held in common by each tribe, other lands by gentes, still other by households.

Allotments of lands to individuals wurden gewöhnlich in Romulus Period, später quite general. Sagt Varro, De Re rustica l. I, c. 10: »Bina jugera quod a Romulo primum divisa (dicebantur) viritim, quae [(quod)] haeredem sequerentur, haeredium appellarunt.« (Selbes bei Dionysius) Similar allotments said to have been made by Numa u. Servius Tullius; diese die beginnings of absolute ownership in severalty, presuppose a settled life etc. It was not only admeasured but granted by the government, form sehr verschieden von possessory right in lands growing out of an individual act … These lands taken from those held in common by the Roman people. Gentes, curiae u. tribes held certain lands in common nach Beginn der Civilization, ausser den individual allotments.

Mommsen sagt, dass: „das römische Territorium in den frühesten Zeiten getheilt in Anzahl von clan (heisst wohl Geschlechter bei ihm!) districts; die später employed in the formation der ältesten rural wards (tribus rusticae) … Diese Namen (der Districts) nicht wie die der districts added at a later period, derived von den localities, sondern formed ohne Ausnahme v. Geschlechternamen, wie Camillii, Galerii, Lemonii, Pollii, Pupinii, Voltinii, Aemilii, Cornelii, Fabii, Horatii, Menenii, Papirii, Romilii, Sergii, Veturii.“ Jede gens hielt also independent district u. was localized upon it. ⦗aber auch in Rom selbst gentes localized in separate areas⦘

Mommsen sagt ferner:

„Wie jeder Haushalt seine eigne Portion Land hatte, so der clan-household (dies wohl nicht das Wort bei Mommsen) or village, had clan-lands belonging to it which … were managed up to a comparatively late period after the analogy (!) of house-lands, that is, on the system of common possession … These clanships jedoch von Anfang an nicht betrachtet als unabhängige Gesellschaften, sondern als integral parts of a political community (civitas populi). This first presents itself as an aggregate of a number of clan-villages of the same stock, language and manners, bound to mutual observance of law and mutual legal redress and to united action in aggression and defence.“ Mommsen represents the Latin tribes anterior to the foundation of Rome as holding lands by households, gentes u. by tribes, zeigt the ascending series of social organizations in the tribes, ganz parallelism to den Iroquois – gens, tribe, confederacy. Phratry nicht mentioned. The household referred to could scarcely have been a single family, wahrscheinlich composed of related families occupying a joint-tenement house u. practicirend communism in living in the household.

ad 6) Erstes feature des gentilism – dependence der gentiles upon each other for the protection of personal rights; verschwindet zuerst, sobald civitas gegründet, wo jeder Bürger sich für Protection an law u. State wendet; kann in historischer Periode nur noch in remains gefunden werden bei Römern.

About 432 B.C. Appius Claudius in prison geworfen. Aber Livius VI, 20: »Ap. Claudio in vincula ducto, C. Claudium inimicum (des Appius Cl.) Claudiamque omnem gentem sordidatam (in mourning Kleidern) fuisse.«

Während des 2t punischen Kriegs, bemerkt Niebuhr, verbanden sich die gentes to ransom ihre in Gefangenschaft befindlichen Genossen; der Senat verbot’s ihnen; nach selbem Niebuhr gens verpflichtet ihren indigent gentiles beizustehn; er citirt dafür Dionysius: II, 10. »ἔδει τοὺς πελάτας τῶν ἀναλωμάτων ὡς τοὺς γένει προσήκοντας μετέχειν.«

ad 7) Zuletzt den persons unmöglich geworden to trace their descent back to the founder. Niebuhr (auf diesen abgeschmackten Grund sich stützend) läugnet die Existenz irgend welcher Blutverwandtschaft in a gens, weil sie nicht beweisen konnten a connection through a common ancestor; danach gens bloss fictitious organization …

Nachdem descent von female to male line changed, die Namen der gentes, wahrscheinlich taken v. animals, gave place to personal names. Irgend ein Individuum, berühmt in der Traditionellen Geschichte der gens, ward its eponymous ancestor u. diese Person, nicht unlikely, at long intervals wieder ersetzt durch andre. Theilte sich a gens in Folge von lokaler Separation, so one division apt to take a new name; dieser change of name would not disturb the kinship worauf die gens begründet … nur auf einem Weg adulteration of gentile descent – durch Adoption, dies nicht häufig. … In an Iroquois gens of 500 persons – gens coming in with a system of consanguinity reducing all consanguinei to a small number of categories, and retaining their descendants indefinitely in the same – all its members related to each other and each person knows or can find its relationship to every other; so that the fact of kin was perpetually present in archaic gens. – Mit monogamian Ehe came in a totally different system of consanguinity, worin die relationships zwischen collaterals rasch disappeared. Dies System der Greek u. Latin tribes bei Beginn der historischen Periode.

Grote, History of Greece III, 33, 36 erzählt: Cleisthenes of Argos changed the names of the 3 Dorian tribes of Sicyon, einen in Hyatae (im singular: a boar), 2ten in Oneatae (an ass), 3d to Choereatae (little pig); dies intended as insult gegen die Sicyonians, blieben ihnen während seiner Lebzeit u. 60 Jahre später. »Did the idea of these animal names come down through tradition?«

Nach Beginn des Verfalls der gentilen Organization, hört auf neue Geschlechterbildung durch den process of segmentation; andre existirende died out. This tended to enhance the value of a gentile descent as a lineage.

Zur Zeit des Kaiserthums etablirten fortwährend sich neue Familien from foreign parts, zu Rom u. nahmen gentile names an to gain social advantages. Emperor Claudius – 40–54 A.D. – verbot den foreigners röm. Namen anzunehmen, besonders alter Geschlechter. Sueton. Vit. Claudius, c. 25 sagt: »Peregrinae conditionis homines vetuit usurpare Romana nomina, dumtaxat gentilicia.« Römische Familien, belonging to the historical gentes, setzten höchsten Werth auf their lineages, sowohl unter Empire wie vorher in republic.

ad 8) Sowohl unter Republik wie Empire practicirt adoption into the family, die carried the person adopted into the gens of the family; das attended mit formalities, die es erschwerten. Kinderlose Person u. past the age to expect them might adopt a son mit consent der pontifices u. der comitia curiata. Cicero, Pro Domo, c. 13. Die noch zu Cicero’s Zeit existirenden precautions, zeigen dass früher die restrictions grösser u. cases seltner.

ad 9) Bei Römern keine direct information über tenure des office of chief (princeps); jede gens, vor Entstehung der civitas, hatte einen chief, probably mehre; hereditary right dazu wahrscheinlich nicht bei Latin tribes, da elective principle später vorwiegt – i.e. unter reges u. in Republik; der rex selbst, das highest office, was elective, the office of senator elective or by appointment, so that of consuls u. inferior magistrates. Das college of pontiffs – instituted durch Numa – filled erst (die pontiffs selbst sich ergänzend) vacancies by election; Livius (XXV, 5) spricht of election of a pontifex maximus durch die comitia about 212 B.C. Auf Volk transferred, durch lex Domitia, the right to elect the members of the several colleges of pontiffs u. priests, später modified durch Sulla. – Also abgeschmackt – ohne positive evidence – anzunehmen dass office of princeps (chief of gens) »hereditary« was. Wo aber Wahlrecht – the tenure des office being for life – da auch Recht to depose.

Diese chiefs of gentes od. eine selection davon, bildeten den Council der Latin tribes vor Stiftung Roms. „All of these cantons (read tribes) were in primitive times politically (asinus!) sovereign, u. each of them was governed by its prince ⦗Prinzerfindender Mommsen; read chief of the tribe⦘, and the co-operation of the council of elders, and the assembly of the warriors“ (Mommsen). It was the council, Herr Mommsen, u. nicht der military commander, Mommsen’s Prinz, who governed.

Niebuhr sagt: „In all the cities belonging to civilized nations on the coasts of the Mediterranean a senate was a no less essential and indispensable part of the state, than a popular assembly; it was a select body of elder citizens; such a council, says Aristoteles, there always is, whether the council be aristocratical or democratical; even in oligarchies, be the number of sharers in the sovereignty ever so small, certain councillors are appointed for preparing public measures.“ Senate of polit. society folgte dem council of chiefs der gentile society. Romulus Senate 100 elders, representing the 100 gentes, was office for life, non-hereditary, woraus folgt dass office of chief was at the time elective.

About 474 B.C. die Fabian gens schlug dem Senat vor als a gens to undertake the Veientian war. Ihr Antrag accepted, fielen in Embuscade. Liv. II, 50 ⦗see auch Ovid, Fasti, II, 193⦘ »Trecentos sex (so viel zogen aus) perisse satis convenit; unum prope puberem (unter age of puberty) aetate relictum stirpem genti Fabiae, dubiisque rebus populi Romani saepe domi bellique vel maximum futurum auxilium.« Die Zahl der 300 would indicate an equal number of females, who with the children of the males, would give an aggregate von at least 700 für Fabian gens (nicht der eine pubes) .

Pt. II. Ch. XII: The Roman Curia, Tribe and Populus.

⦗Angebliche Perioden bis zur Errichtung der Republik: 1) Romulus 754–717 B.C. (1–37 a.u.c.) 2) Numa Pompilius. 717–679 B.C. (37–75 a.u.) 3) Tullus Hostilius. 679–640 B.C. (75–114 a.u.) 4) Ancus Martius. 640–618 B.C. (114–136 a.u.) 5) Tarquinius Priscus 618–578 B.C. (136–176 a.u.) 6) 578–534 B.C. (176–220 a.u.) Servius Tullius. 7) 534–509 B.C. (220–245 a.u.) Tarquinius Superbus.⦘

Societas, founded upon gens, neben civitas, founded upon territory u. property; letztere Organization im Lauf v. 200 Jahren gradually supplanting the former; to a certain degree completed der change unter Servius Tullius (578–534 B.C. 176–220 a.u.). curia, analogous to Grecian phratry, = 10 gentes; 10 curiae = 1 tribe; unter Servius Tullius war Populus Romanus = 3 tribes, 30 curiae, 300 gentes. Wurst ob Roman kings fabelhaft od. nicht; ebenso Wurst, ob die legislation ascribed to either of them be fabulous or true. The events of human progress embody themselves, independently of particular men, in a material record, which is crystallized in institutions, usages u. customs, u. preserved in inventions u. discoveries.

Das numerical adjustment von gentes etc – a result of legislative procurement not older, in the first 2 tribes, than the times of Romulus.

The curia der Romans – ungleich der Phratry der Greeks u. Iroquois, grew into an organization, having distinct governmental character engrafted upon itself. Wahrscheinlich die gentes einer Curia related to each other, versahn sich einander durch intermarriage mit wives. (Dies Conjectur.) The organization as a phratry – obgleich erst mentioned in Roman history in connection mit legislation des Romulus, von time immemorial in Latin tribes.

Livius, I, 13: »Itaque, quum (der Romulus) populum in curias triginta divideret (nach dem Frieden mit den Sabinern), nomina earum (der geraubten Sabinerinnen) curiis imposuit.«

Dionys. Antiq. of Rome, II, 7: »φράτρα δὲ καὶ λόχος (Kriegerschaar, Rotte) ἡ κουρία«; ibid. heisst’s: »διῄρηντο δὲ καὶ εἰς δεκάδας αἱ φρᾶτραι πρὸς αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἡγεμὼν ἑκάστην ἐκόσμει δεκάδαρχος κατὰ τὴν ἐπιχώριον γλῶτταν προσαγορευόμενος.«

Plut. Vit. Rom. c. 20: »Ἑκάστη δὲ φυλὴ δέκα φρατρίας εἶχεν, ἃς ἔνιοι λέγουσιν ἐπωνύμους εἶναι ἐκείνων τῶν γυναικῶν.« Was Romulus that was the adjustment of the number of gentes in each tribe, was er fertig bringen konnte durch die accessions gained from the surrounding tribes. In die Ramnes (ersten tribe) nahm er related gentes in selber curia, reached numerical symmetry by arbitrarily taking the excess of gentes von one natural curia to supply the deficiency of the other (kommt auch bei den Red Indians vor). Die Tities meist Sabiner; die Luceres heterogeneous, formed later from gradual accessions u. conquests; enthielten auch Etruscan gentes. In der reconstruction gens blieb pure, curia made to include in some cases gentes nicht related, durchbrach also Schranke der natural phratry; ebenso tribe umschloss foreign elements that not belong to a tribe by merely spontaneous growth. The third tribe (Luceres) in great part an artificial creation; Etruscan element darin lässt annehmen, that their dialect not wholly unintelligible to Romans.

Niebuhr zeigte zuerst that the people was sovereign, so-called kings had delegated power, u. dass der Senat based on principle of representation. Aber Niebuhr at variance with facts, wenn er sagt: die numerischen Proportions seien unwiderleglicher Beweis dass die Roman gentes nicht älter als die Constitution des Romulus, dass sie „Corporations formed by a legislator in harmony with the rest of his scheme“. A legislator could not fabricate a gens; auch eine curia konnte er nur machen by combinating gentes; er konnte by constraint increase or decrease the number of gentes in a curia u. the number of curiae in a tribe.

Die Stelle bei Dionysius (Halicarnassensis) 1. II. c. 7 lautet in full: »Nachdem er (Romulus) die ganze Masse dreigetheilt, machte er den Hervorragendsten jedes der (3) Theile zum leader (ἡγεμόνα ἐπέστησεν); dann theilte er wieder jeden der 3 Theile in 10, zu gleichen (im Rang ἴσους) Führern dieser ernannte er wieder die tüchtigsten; die (3) grössern Theile nannte er tribus, die kleineren Curien (κουρίας), wie sie auch jetzt noch heissen. In griech. Sprache interpretirt ist der tribus = φυλή od. τριττύς; die curia = φράτρα u. λόχος (Band, Kriegerrotte); die Männer an der Spitze der tribus = φύλαρχοι u. τριττύαρχοι, die die Römer Tribunen nennen. ⦗Tribun also literally das Equivalent des alten tribe Chief⦘ Die Vorsteher der Curien = φρατρίαρχοι u. λοχαγοί, welche die Römer Curionen nennen. Die Phratrien wurden wieder abgetheilt in Dekaden, u. ein Führer leitete jede Dekade, Decurio genannt in der Landeszunge. Nachdem aber so alle eingetheilt u. zusammengestellt in Phylen u. Phratrien, theilte er das Land in 30 gleiche Loose, gab jeder Phratrie ein Loos, nahm Land genügend für sacra u. Tempel, u. liess auch gewisses Land für gemeinschaftlichen Gebrauch übrig (καί τινα καὶ τῷ κοινῷ γῆν καταλιπών). Nur diese Theilung von Leuten u. Land durch Romulus, allgemeine u. grösste Gleichheit.«

Mitglieder der curia hiessen curiales; wählten einen priest curio, chief officer der fraternity; jede hatte its sacred rites, its sacellum as a place of worship u. ihren Versammlungsplatz für transaction of business; neben dem curio gewählt an assistant priest flamen curialis, had the immediate charge of the observances; die Volksversammlung comitia curiata, sovereign power in Rom, mehr als der Senat des gentile system.

Vor Zeit des Romulus unter den Latin tribes – tribal chiefs (Dionysius II, 7); ein tribal chief – der chief officer des tribe, whose duties magisterial (in city), military (in the field) u. religious (administering the sacra) (Dionys. l.c.). Jedenfalls his office elective, wahrscheinlich gewählt durch die curiae collected in a general assembly. Der »tribal chief« wahrscheinlich genannt »rex« vor der Gründung Roms, ebenso der Council Senate (senex) u. die tribal assembly – comitia (con-ire). Nach der coalescence der 3 Roman tribes – the national character of the tribe lost.

Die 30 curiones as a body wurden organisirt in a college of priests, einer davon had the office of curio maximus; was elected by the assembly of gentes. Daneben college of augurs, bestehend unter Ogulnian law (300 B.C.) aus 9 members, inclus. their chief – magister collegii; u. college of pontiffs, 9 members unter demselben Gesetz, inclus. pontifex maximus.

Das Ganze, as organized by Romulus nannte sich: Populus Romanus; war nichts als a gentile society; change ernöthigt u. zwar fundamental one durch raschen Anwachs der Bevölkerung unter Romulus u. namentlich in der Periode zwischen ihm u. Servius Tullius. (754–534)

Livius sagt, dass es »vetus consilium« (Livy I, 8), alter trick, of the founders of cities to draw to themselves an obscure and humble multitude, and then set up for their progeny the autochthonic claim. Romulus so opened an asylum near the Palatine, u. invited all persons in the surrounding tribes etc. »Eo ex finitimis populis turba omnis sine discrimine, liber an servus esset, avida novarum rerum perfugit; idque primum ad coeptam magnitudinem roboris fuit.« (Liv. I, 8.) Plut. Romulus c. 20 u. Dionys. II, 15 erwähnen auch das asylum or grove. Zeigt, dass die Barbarische Bevölkerung Italiens sehr angewachsen, discontent unter ihnen, Mangel an persönlicher Sicherheit, existence of domestic slavery, apprehension of violence. – Angriff seitens der Sabiner, wegen der ihnen gestohlnen Weiber; resultirte in Compromiss, Latiner u. Sabiner coalesced into one society, jede division behielt its own military leader, die Tities (Sabiner) unter Titius Tatius. – 679–640 B.C. Tullus Hostilius nahm die Latin city of Alba, brachte ihre ganze Bevölkerung nach Rom; sie besetzten angeblich Coelian Hill; Zahl der citizens nun doubled nach Liv. I, 30. 640–618 : Ancus Marcius nahm die lat. Stadt Politorium, transferred the people bodily to Rome; ihnen angeblich Aventinus mons eingeräumt mit same privileges. Kurz nachher die inhabitants of Tellini u. Ficana subdued, removed to Rome, also occupied Mons Aventinus. (Liv. I, 38) Die gentes, nach Rom gebracht, blieben alle locally distinct; dies thaten gentes überall in Middle u. Upper Status of Barbarism, sobald die tribes began to gather in fortresses u. walled cities. ⦗In the pueblo houses in New Mexico alle occupants of each house belonged to the same tribe u. in einigen Fällen a single joint-tenement house contained a tribe. At Tlascala 4 quarters occupied by 4 lineages, probably phratries etc⦘ Die greater portion dieser new accessions united in the 3d tribe Luceres, der erst completed unter Tarquinius Priscus (618–578) durch Einverleibung einiger neuer Etruskischer gentes.

Growth der tribes in Rome under legislative constraint, not entirely free from the admixture of Foreign elements; hence name tribus, ⅓ of the people; Latin language must have had a term equivalent of Phyle, became extinct; zeigt heterogeneous elements in Roman tribes, während griech. Phyle pure.

Der Senate des Romulus mit functions similar to those of the previous council of chiefs. Jede gens, sagt Niebuhr , sent its decurion, who was its alderman to represent it in the Senate. Also representative u. elective body, blieb elective od. selective bis zum Empire. Office der Senators lebenslänglich, einziger term of office then known (wie farmer bei Anglosaxon mindestens for one life). Liv. 1, 8 sagt: »Centum creat (Romulus) senatores: sive quia is numerus satis erat (Kerl vergisst, that there were then only 100 gentes, constituting the tribe der Ramnes); sive quia soli centum erant, qui creari Patres possent (Superlativ dies von faselndem Pragmatismus), Patres certe ab honore ⦗Pater, weil chief of gens⦘, patriciique progenies eorum appellati.« Cic. de rep. II, 8: »Principes, qui appellati sunt propter caritatem, patres.« Die distinction of patricians conferred upon their children u. lineal descendants in perpetuity schuf at once an aristocracy of rank in centre des Roman social system where it became firmly intrenched; this aristocratic element now for the first time planted in gentilism.

Nach der union der Sabines Senat increased to 200 durch addition v. 100 v. tribe der Tities (Dion. II, 47) u. when Luceres increased to 100 gentes in time der Patricians, a 3d 100 added v. den gentes dieses tribe; durch Tarquinius Priscus.

Liv. I, 35: »Nec minus regni sui firmandi, quam augendae rei publicae memor, centum in Patres legit (Tarquin. Priscus) qui deinde minorum gentium sunt appellati: factio haud dubia regis, cujus beneficio in curiam venerant.« Etwas verschieden Cic. De Rep. II, 20: »Isque (Tarquinius) ut de suo imperio legem tulit, principio duplicavit illum pristinum patrum numerum (dies setzt voraus, dass die Alten patres v. 200 auf 150 herabgesunken; waren dann 50 zu ergänzen aus Ramnes u. Tities und 100 neu zugefügt aus Luceres); et antiquos patres majorum gentium appellavit, ⦗dies auch bei Iroquois, aber mit der primitiven Bedeutung, dass die minores gentes Abkommen der majores, später daher gebildet⦘ quos priores sententiam rogabat; a se adscitos, minorum.«

Die Form des statement shows, dass jeder Senator representative of a gens; ferner, da jede gens sicher hatte its principal chief – princeps – diese person chosen von gens od. 10 auf einmal v. den 10 gentes wählend als curia. Dies dem Wesen nach auch Niebuhr ’s Ansicht. Nach der Errichtung der Republik (seit 509 B.C.) besetzen die Censoren die Lücken im Senat nach ihrer choice, dies fiel später den Consules zu; die Senators generally selected aus ex-magistrates der higher grades.

All public measures originated im Senat, sowohl die, wobei sie unabhängig verfahren konnten, als die die sie der popular assembly zur adoption to submit. Der Senat hatte general guardianship of public welfare, management der foreign relations, levy of taxes and military forces, general control of revenues u. expenditure; hatte auch oberste power over religion, obgleich die administration der religious affairs den several collegia zufiel.

Assembly of the People (in dieser Form unknown in Lower u. wahrscheinlich auch Middle Status of Barbarism) existed in Upper Status, in agora der Greek tribes (highest form in ecclesia der Athener), u. ebenso in der assembly of warriors der Latin tribes, erhielt hier höchste Form in den comitia curiata der Römer. Letztre bestanden aus den adult members der gentes, jede curia had one collective vote, majority in each ascertained separately, determined what that vote should be. (Liv. I, 43; Dion. II, 14, IV, 20, 84.) Es war die assembly der gentes, who alone were members of the government. Plebejans u. clients – forming already a numerous class, excluded, weil keine connection möglich mit Populus Romanus, ausser durch a gens and a tribe. Comitia did not originate public measures, nor amend those submitted to them; nahmen sie an od. verwarfen sie; alle magistrates u. high public functionaries, incl. rex, elected by the comitia on the nomination of the Senate. So durch comitia curiata elected Numa Pompilius (Cic. De Rep. II, 11. Liv. I, 17), Tullus Hostilius (Cic. de Rep. II, 17) u. Ancus Martius (Cic. De Rep. II, 18; Liv. I, 32). Mit Bezug auf Tarquinius Priscus bemerkt Livius (I, 35), dass der Populus durch great majority ihn zum rex ernannte. Servius Tullius assumed the office, afterwards confirmed by the comitia (Cic. De Rep. II, 21). – The Imperium conferred upon these persons by a law of the assembly – Lex curiata de imperio – Roman method of investing with office; vor dieser Uebertragung des imperium konnte die person elected nicht ihr office antreten. Die comitia curiata, by appeal, had the ultimate decision in criminal cases involving the life of a Roman citizen. The office of rex abolished by a popular movement.

Die assembly had no power to convene itself; it is said to have met on the summons of the rex, oder in his absence, des praefectus urbi; in der Republik durch die consules berufen, od. in deren absence durch praetor; in allen Fällen präsidirte die berufende Person über die deliberations der comitia.

Der rex war General u. Priest, aber ohne civil functions.

Nach Abschaffung des Königthums 2 consules an seine Stelle, wie die 2 war-chiefs der Iroquois.

Der rex as chief priest took the auspices on field of battle wie in city on important occasions, verrichtete auch other religious rites. Nach Abschaffung der Königswürde, ihre priestly functions übertragen auf das neu geschaffne office des rex sacrorum od. rex sacrificulus; bei Athenern analog der eine der 9 Archonten Archon basileus, der a general supervision of religious affairs hatte. – Die Romans in diesen 200 years (bis Servius Tullius) had experienced the necessity for written laws to be enacted by themselves als Substitut for usages u. customs; had created ausserdem a city magistracy u. a complete military system, including the institution of the equestrian order.

Unter den new magistrates created wichtigster that of warden of the city – custos urbis, war zugleich Princeps Senatus. Nach Dionys. II, 12 appointed by Romulus. Nach der Zeit der Decemviri (451–447) dies office changed to praefectus urbi, its powers enlarged u. it was made elective by the new comitia centuriata. ⦗Census u. comitia centuriata eingesetzt durch Servius Tullius nach seiner division des people according to property … das trial of Coriolan bewog die Tribunen to usurp the right of summoning some patricians before the tribunal of the people; hence the comitia tributa, either were assemblies of the commons, or assemblies so organized, that the commons had the preponderance; diese Institution gab den tribunes their share in legislation, those officers being allowed to lay proposals before the commons.⦘

Unter Republik had die consules u. in their absence the praetor power to convene the Senate u. also to hold the comitia. Später das office of Prätor – Prätor urbanus (absorbed the functions of the old office des Praefectus urbi). A judicial magistrate, prototype of the modern judge, der Roman »Prätor«. – Bei Tod des Romulus die society noch gentile.

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Part II. Ch. XIII. The institution of Roman Political Society.

578 od. 576–533. Servius Tullius. Seit Romulus röm. Gesellschaft gespalten in Patricians, constituting the Populus, u. plebejans, die Plebs; beide persönlich frei u. beide entered the ranks of the army; plebejans aber, nicht einbegriffen in gentile society, ausserhalb the government. Nach Niebuhr die Existenz der plebs als annerkannt freie u. sehr zahlreiche Portion der Bevölkerung nachweisbar bis zu reign des Ancus Marcius (640–618). Plebs excluded v. office, comitia curiata, sacred rites der gentes (v. intermarriage mit diesen). Zur Zeit des Servius numerous plebs fast so numerous wie populus; subject to military service, possessing families u. property. Die Constitution der gentile organization schloss sie aus; hence letztre musste fliegen.

Entstehung der plebs, i.e. v. Personen not members of an organized gens, curia, tribe. Adventurers who flocked to the new city from the surrounding tribes, war captives afterwards set free, unattached persons mingled with the gentes transplanted to Rome, would rapidly furnish such a class; ausserdem might happen that in filling up the 100 gentes of each tribe, fragments of gentes and gentes having less than a prescribed number of persons, were excluded. Aus dem Epitheton der [senators of the] Luceres „Fathers minorum gentium“ ersichtlich dass die old gentes reluctant ihre entire equality anzuerkennen. Nach filling up des 3d tribe mit der prescribed number of gentes the last avenue of admission closed, wonach die Zahl der plebejan class rasch anwachsend. Niebuhr läugnet, dass clients part des plebejan body.

Dionys. II, 8 u. Plut. Vit. Romuli, XIII, 16 schreiben Romulus die Einrichtung (!) der relation v. patron u. client zu, ditto Suetonius, Tiberius, c. 1. (Alles, was diese 3 sagen, beweist gefällig nichts!) ⦗Morgan’s Behauptung, dass die clients v. Anfang an a part of the plebejan body – falsch, Niebuhr right.⦘

Niebuhr u. andre nehmen an dass der entire populus were patricians. – Nach Dionysius II, 8 (vgl. Plut. , vit. Romuli, XIII) fand Errichtung der Patrician class vor Bildung des Senats statt; war zusammengesetzt aus Personen ausgezeichnet durch Tapferkeit, birth (!) u. wealth. Danach blieben aber noch large class in den several gentes, die keine Patricier.

Cic. de Rep. II, 12: »Quum ille Romuli Senatus, qui constabat ex optimatibus, quibus ipse rex tantum tribuisset, ut eos patres vellet nominari, patriciosque eorum liberos, tentaret etc.«

Liv. I, 8: »Patres certe ab honore, patriciique progenies eorum appellati.«

Die Bildung der Senatoren aus chiefs der gens schliesst nur ein dass die gewählten family chiefs – und nur eine family aus den vielen der gens hatte ihr Haupt im Senat, bedingt nur, dass diese Burschen Patres u. nur ihre progenies patricii, aber nicht alle members jeder gens, also der ganze populus (im Gegensatz zu Plebs) wie Niebuhr meint. Unter den reges u. der Republik individuals created patricians by the government.

Vellejus Paterculus I, 8: »Hic centum homines electos, appellatosque Patres, instar habuit consilii publici. Hanc originem nomen Patriciorum habet.«

There could be no patrician gens u. no plebejan gens, obgleich ⦗notabene später, als gentile society abolished⦘ particular families in one gens could be patrician u. other plebejan. All the adult members of the Fabian gens, 306, were patricians; could either trace their descent from senators or to some public act, wodurch their predecessors raised to patriciate. Vor Servius Tullius Romans divided in Populus u. Plebs; nachher, namentlich nach der Licinian legislation (367 B.C.), wodurch alle Staatswürden jedem civis zugänglich gemacht, alle freien Römer in 2 Klassen: Aristokratie u. Commonalty; die ersteren bestanden aus senators u. deren descendants, mit denen, die eins der 3 curules offices (consul, praetor, curulis aedilis) innegehabt u. deren Nachkommen; die commonalty, nun alle Roman cives; die gentile organization verfiel u. die old division nicht länger haltbar. Personen, die in der ersten Periode zum Populus gehört, gehörten in der 2ten zur Aristokratie, ohne Patricier zu sein. Claudii u. Marcelli 2 Familien der Claudian gens; die ersteren patricii (could trace their descent v. Appius Claudius), die 2ten Plebejer.

Die Patrician class zahlreich; bei jeder Lücke neuer Senator gewählt, conferred patrician rank auf ihre Nachkommen; others v. Zeit zu Zeit zu patricians gemacht durch act of the state. (Liv. IV, 4)

Schatten der alten Unterscheidung v. Populus u. Plebs blieb: »A plebe consensu populi consulibus negotium mandatur.« Liv. IV, 51.

Numa (717–679 B.C.), der Nachfolger des Romulus, tended to traverse the gentes, durch Eintheilung des Volks in Klassen (wie Theseus), some 8 in number, entsprechend to their arts u. trades.

Plutarch. Numa c. 17: » Numa bedachte nun, dass man auch Körper, die ursprünglich unmischbar u. spröde sind, durch Stampfen u. Zerstossen in Verbindung bringe, weil kleine Theile sich eher vereinen. Daher beschloss er dann die gesammte Menge in mehre Theile zu scheiden, u. durch Hervorbringung neuer Verschiedenheiten jene erste grosse gleichsam in kleinere zu zersplittern u. eben dadurch aufzuheben. Er theilte also das Volk nach den Gewerben in Flötenspieler (αὐλητῶν), Goldarbeiter (χρυσοχόων), Zimmerleute (τεκτόνων), Färber (βαφέων), Schuster (σκυτοτόμων), Gerber (σκυτοδεψῶν), Schmiede (χαλκέων) u. Töpfer (κεραμέων). Die übrigen Gewerbe vereinigte er mit einander, u. bildete aus allen zusammen eine Zunft. Durch die Gemeinschaften, Zusammenkünfte u. gottesdienstlichen Feierlichkeiten, die er für jede Zunft nach Gebühr anordnete, brachte er es in der Stadt dahin, dass die Unterscheidung zwischen Sabinern u. Römern, u. zwischen Bürgern des Tatius u. Bürgern des Romulus völlig aufgehoben wurde, so dass diese Absonderung eine Vereinigung u. Verschmelzung Aller mit Allen bewirkte.« Da diese classes aber nicht invested mit den powers exercised by the gentes, the measure failed. ⦗Aber nach der Darstellung des Plutarch ’s handelt es sich um »Bürger des Romulus« (Latins) u. Bürger des Tatius (Sabiner); dies würde die gentes als hauptsächlich Handwerktreibende stempeln! wenigstens die in der Stadt.⦘

Servius Tullius ’ Periode 576–533 B.C. folgt closely der des Solon (596 B.C.) u. vor der des Cleisthenes (509 B.C.) Seine Constitution modeled nach der des Solon; was in practical operation bei Errichtung der Republik (509 B.C.). Die Hauptchanges, setting aside the gentes u. inaugurating political society, were: 1) substitution of classes, formed nach individual wealth; 2) comitia centuriata, the new popular assembly, statt comitia curiata, assembly der gentes; 3) creation of 4 city wards, circumscribed by metes and bounds, u. named as territorial areas, wo die residents of each ward required to enroll their names and register their property.

Solon divided the whole people in 5 classes nach value of their property, wovon effect to concentrate in one class the wealthiest men of the several gentes. Property qualification war für 1ste class 100,000 asses; 2t class 75,000; 3t class 50,000; 4t cl. 25,000; 5t class 11,000 asses. (Livy, I, 43) Dionysius fügt 6t class hinzu, consisting of one century, mit 1 vote; composed of those without property or less than required for admission in 5. class; paid no taxes u. dienten nicht in Krieg. (Dionys. IV, 20) (einige andre Differences zwischen Dionysius u. Livius) Jede class subdivided in centuries, deren Anzahl willkührlich, ohne Rücksicht auf Personenzahl in der class, with one vote to each century in den comitia. So 1ste class zählte 80 centuries, hatte 80 votes in the comitia centuriata; 2t class 20 centuries, wozu 2 of artisans attached, mit 22 votes; 3d class 20 centuries mit 20 votes; 4th class 20, wozu 2 centuries of hornblowers and trompeters, 22 votes; 5th class of 30 centuries mit 30 votes. Ausserdem Ritter mit 18 centuries u. ebensoviel votes. Dadurch government, soweit beeinflussbar durch die popular assembly, comitia centuriata – in hands der 1sten class u. der equites, hatten zusammen 98 votes, majority des whole. – Die centuries jeder class divided into seniors, über 55 Jahr, charged mit duty as soldiers of defending the city, u. juniors, v. 17 Jahren bis 54 Jahr inclus., charged with external military enterprises. (Dionys. IV, 16) – Jede centurie agreed upon its vote separately when assembled in the comitia centuriata; in taking a vote upon any public question, equites called first, then the 1st class. Stimmten sie überein in ihrem vote, then the question decided, u. die übrigen centuries nicht called upon to vote; wenn they disagreed, 2nd class called upon u.s.f.

Die Rechte der comitia curiata, etwas erweitert, übertragen auf die comit. centuriata; elected all officers and magistrates upon the nomination of the Senate; enacted or rejected laws proposed durch letzteren; repealed existing laws auf sein Verlangen, wenn’s ihnen gefiel; declared war auf seine recommendation, aber Senat schloss Frieden ohne sie zu consultiren; an appeal to the comitia centuriata in all cases involving life; they had no control (die comit. centur.) over finances. – Property, not numbers controlled the gvt.

Meetings of the comitia jährlich held in Campus Martius für Wahl v. Magistrates u. officers u. zu andern Zeiten, wenn nöthig. Volk assembled by centuries u. by classes under their officers, organized as an army (exercitus); centuries u. classes designed für civil u. military organization. Bei erster Musterung unter Servius Tullius 80,000 in Waffen im Campus Martius, jeder Mann in seiner century, jede Century in ihrer Klasse, jede Klasse besonders. (Liv. I, 44, Dionys., der 84,700 zählt, IV. 22.)

Jedes member einer Centurie nun civis Romanus; dies das Hauptresultat.

Nach Cicero, De Rep. II, 22 wählte Servius Tullius die Equites from the common mass of the people (langte sich die Reichsten heraus) u. divided the remainder into 5 classes.

The property classes subserved the useful purpose of breaking up the gentes, which had become close corporations, excluding the mass of the population. – The 5 classes, mit some modification of the manner of voting, remained to the end of the republic. Servius Tullius soll auch instituirt haben die comitia tributa, a separate assembly of each local tribe or ward, deren chief duties relating to the assessment and collection of taxes u. to furnishing contingents of troops. Später elected dies assembly die tribunes of the people.

Einer der ersten acts des Servius – der Census. »Censum enim instituit, rem saluberrimam tanto futuro imperio: ex quo belli pacisque munia non viritim, [ut ante,] sed pro habitu pecuniarum fierent.« (Liv. I. 42.) Jede Person hatte sich selbst to enroll in ward of his residence, with statement of amount of his property, geschah in Gegenwart von Censor; the lists when completed furnished the basis upon which the classes were formed. Creation of 4 city wards gleichzeitig, circumscribed by boundaries u. mit eignen Namen; such Roman ward a geographical area, mit a registry of citizens u. their property, a local organization, a tribune u. other elective offices u. with an assembly – aber nicht wie Attic deme zugleich polit. body mit complete self-government, elective magistracy, judiciary u. priesthood.

Dies Roman ward a nearer copy of the previous Athenian naucrary, die wahrscheinlich auch ihr model war. Dionys. IV, 14 sagt, dass nachdem Servius Tullius inclosed the 7 hills mit one wall, he divided the city in 4 parts 1) Palatina, 2) Suburra, 3) Collina, 4) Esquilina (früher hatte die city 3 parts); sie hätten nun zu dienen (diese Theile) statt nach φυλὰς τὰς γενικάς, nach φυλὰς τὰς τοπικάς; setzte commanders über jeden tribe, as phylarchs u. comarchs, whom he directed to note what house each inhabited. Nach Mommsen hatte jeder dieser 4 levy districts to furnish the 4th part nicht nur of the force as a whole, sondern von jeder ihrer militair. Unterabtheilungen u. jede century zählte gleiche Zahl von Conscribirten from each region, to merge all distinctions of gentile u. local nature into one common u. durch influence of military spirit to bind metoeci und burgesses into one people.

Ebenso die Umgegend, under the government of Rome, organized in tribus rusticae, nach einigen 26, nach andern 31, mit den 4 city tribus in einem Fall 30, im andern 35. These townships did not become integral in the sense of participating in the administration of the government.

The overshadowing municipality of Rome made the centre of the State.

Nach Einführung des new political system behielten die comitia curiata noch (ausser religiösen curia dreck, inaugurated certain priests –) bei das: they conferred the imperium upon all the higher magistrates, became in time a matter of form only. After 1st Punic war verloren sie alle Bedeutung u. fell soon in oblivion; ebenso die curiae – beide superseded rather than abolished; gentes blieben lang ins empire hinein, as a pedigree u. a lineage.

The element of property, which has controlled society to a great extent during the comparatively short period of civilization, gab mankind despotism, imperialism, monarchy, privileged classes u. finally representative democracy.

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Pt. II. Ch. XIV. Change of Descent von Female to Male Line.

1. Female Descent: Female ancestor u. her children (sons u. daughters); children of her daughters, and of her female descendants through females, in perpetuity. (Children of her sons, and of her male descendants, through males were excluded.) Dies bildet archaic gens.

2. Descent in male line: Gens consists of asupposed male ancestor u. his children, together mit den children of his sons and of his male descendants through males in perpetuity.

Bei change v. 1) zu 2) blieben alle present members der gens Mitglieder derselben, nur in future all children, whose fathers belonged to the gens, should alone remain in it u. bear the gentile name, while the children of the female members should be excluded. This would not break or change the kinship or relations of the existing gentiles; but thereafter it would retain in the gens the children it before excluded, and exclude those it before retained.

Solang descent in female line: 1)Marriage in the gens prohibited; hence children in an other gens than that of their reputed father.

2. Property and the office of chief hereditary in the gens: thus excluding children from inheriting the property or succeeding to the office of their reputed father. – Sobald change of condition (durch Entwicklung v. individual property u. monogamy namentlich) such, dass diese exclusions »ungerecht« erschienen, – change of descent effected. ⦗Private property in flocks u. herds u. nachdem tillage had led to the ownership of houses u. lands in severalty.⦘ With property accumulating in masses and assuming permanent forms, and with an increased portion of it held by individual ownership, descent in the female line ⦗v. wegen inheritance⦘ certain of overthrow. Change to descent in male line would leave the inheritance in the gens as before, but it would place children in the gens of their father u. at the head of the agnatic kindred.

Probable, that when descent changed to the male line, or still earlier, animal names for the gentes laid aside and personal names substituted in their place. After this substitution, the eponymous ancestor became a shifting person.

The more celebrated Grecian gentes made the change of names; they retained the name of the mother of their gentile father and ascribed his birth to her embracement by some particular god. So Eumolpus, der eponymous ancestor der Attic Eumolpidae, was the reputed son of Neptune u. Chione.

440. B.C. Herodot: sagt v. den Lycians (von denen er erzählt, dass sie sprung from Creta, u. nach Lykia gewandert unter Führung des Sarpedon , dass „ihre customs partly Cretan, partly Carian“):

„Die Lykier haben eine sonderbare Gewohnheit worin sie abweichen von jeder andern Nation in der Welt. Frage einen Lykier wer er ist u. er antwortet indem er seinen Eigennamen giebt, den seiner Mutter und so on in the female line. Ferner, wenn eine freie Weibsperson einen Mann heirathet, der ein Sklave ist, so sind ihre Kinder freie Bürger; aber wenn ein freier Mann ein ausländisch Weib heirathet, oder cohabits with a concubine, selbst wenn er die first person im Staat ist, the children forfeit all the rights of citizenship.“

Now cfr: Wenn ein Seneca-Iroquois ein fremdes Weib heirathet, sind seine Kinder aliens; aber wenn eine Seneca-Iroquois Weibsperson einen Fremden heirathet, od. einen Onondaga, sind ihre Kinder Iroquois of the Seneca tribe u. of the gens u. phratry ihrer Mutter. Die Frau überträgt ihre nationality u. her gens auf ihre Kinder, whoever their father.

Folgt aus Herodot’s Stelle, dass die Lykier organized in gentes (of archaic form), hence mit descent in female line.

Die aborigines v. Creta (Kandia) waren Pelasgian, Semitic u. Hellenic tribes, living locally apart. Minos, der brother des Sarpedon, gilt als head der Pelasgians in Creta; die Lykier zu Herodot’s Zeit ganz hellenisirt – conspicuous unter den Asiatic Greeks for their advancement. Die Insulation ihrer Vorfahren auf Creta-Insel, vor ihrer migration in the legendary period to Lycia, mag erklären ihre retention of the female line in this late period.

„Etrusker ⦗nach Cramer: Description of Ancient Italy (dieser selbst quotes Lanzi)⦘, wie wir aus ihren Monumenten sehn, liessen ihre Weiber zu ihren Festen u. Banquets zu; sie beschreiben ihre parentage u. family invariably with reference to the mother, and not the father. Dieselben 2 customs noticed von Herodot bezüglich der Lykier und Caunians v. Asia Minor.“

Curtius (Griech. Geschichte) commenting on Lycian, Etruskan u. Cretan descent in female line, sagt: dies wurzle in den primitive conditions of society, als Monogamie noch nicht etablirt hinreichend to assure descent on the father’s side. Der Gebrauch erstreckt sich daher weit über Lycian territory; occurs heut noch in Indien; existirte unter den alten Aegyptern; mentioned by Sanchoniathon (p. 16, Orell); bei Etruskans, Cretans, who called their fatherland – Motherland. ⦗noch immer sagt jeder: Mutterzunge, Fatherland; die Sprache gehört immer noch der Mutter⦘ Die Stelle bei Herodot beweist nur, dass sich die custom of descent in female line von allen related to the Greeks u. am längsten unter den Lykiern erhalten … As life became more regulated, relinquished u. naming children after their fathers became general in Greece. Cf. Bachofen , Mutterrecht, Stuttgart 1861.

Bachofen (Mutterrecht) has collected u. discussed the evidence of Mutterrecht u. Gyneocracy unter Lykiern, Cretern, Athenern, Lemniern, Aegyptern, Orchomenians, Locrians, Lesbians u. unter östlichen Asiatischen Nationen. Dies aber setzt voraus – gens in its archaic form; diese would give the gens of the mothers the ascendency in the household. Die family – wahrscheinlich schon in syndyasmian form – noch environed mit den remains of conjugal system of still earlier condition. Such family – a married pair with their children – mit kindred families in a communal household wo die several mothers u. ihre Kinder of the same gens, the reputed fathers dieser children of other gentes.

Common lands u. joint tillage would lead to joint-tenement houses and communism in living; gyneocracy unterstellt für Entstehung – descent in the female line producirt . Women entrenched in large households, supplied from common stores, in which their own gens largely predominated in numbers – … When descent changed to male line mit monogamian family the joint-tenement house displaced, stellte in midst einer rein gentile society the wife and mother in a single house u. separated her from her gentile kindred.

Bachofen sagt v. Cretan city of Lyktos: diese Stadt wurde betrachtet als lacedämonische Colonie u. auch als related to the Athenians; war in beiden Fällen so on the mother’s side, denn nur die Mütter waren spartan. Abkunft. Die Athenian Verwandschaft geht zurück auf Athenische Weiber welche die Pelasgian Tyrrhenians from Brauron promontory enticed haben sollen. – Mit descent in male line, bemerkt treffend Morgan , würde das lineage der women unberücksichtigt geblieben sein; aber mit female line gaben die Colonists their pedigrees through females only.

Monogamy unter Greeks probably nicht vor Upper Status of Barbarism. Wie pragmatisch u. als echter deutscher Schulgelehrter Bachofen selbst die Sache auffasst, sichtbar aus folgendem passus:

„Denn vor der Zeit des Kekrops hatten die Kinder nur eine Mutter, keinen Vater; they were of one line. An keinen Mann ausschliesslich gebunden, brachte das Weib nur spurious (!) children zur Welt. Kekrops (!) machte (!) diesem Zustand der Dinge ein Ende; brachte zurück (!) die lawless (!) union of sexes zur Exclusivität der Ehe, gab den Kindern einen Vater (!) und eine Mutter (!) u. machte sie so from unilateres – bilateres.“ (machte sie unilateres in male line of descent!)

Polybius XII, extract II: „Die Lokrier selbst ⦗die 100 families of Locrians in Italy⦘ haben mich versichert, dass ihre eignen traditions mehr dem Bericht des Aristoteles entsprechen als dem des Timäus. Geben davon folgende Beweise … alle nobility of ancestry ist unter ihnen von Weibern abgeleitet u. nicht von Männern. Die allein sind noble, die ihren Ursprung von den 100 families ableiten; diese families were noble unter den Locrians vor ihrer Wanderung; u. waren in der That dieselben von denen durch Loos 100 virgins taken, wie das Orakel befohlen hatte, u. die nach Troja gesandt wurden.“

Wahrscheinlich der hier erwähnte Rang (Adel) connected mit office of chief of gens, ennobled die besondre Familie innerhalb der gens, auf eines deren Glieder es conferred; dies implicirt descent in the female line both as to persons u. office; das office of chief hereditary in the gens u. elective unter its male members in archaic times; mit descent in female line passes v. Bruder zu Bruder u. von Onkel zu Nephew (Schwesterssohn). Aber office stets passed through females, the eligibility der Person depending upon the gens of his mother, who gave him connection with the gens u. the defunct chief whose place he was to fill. Wo office u. rank runs through females, it requires descent in the female line for its explanation.

In traditionary period der Greeks: Salmōneus u. Krētheus own brothers, Söhne des Aeolus. Der erstere gab seine Tochter Tyrō in Ehe ihrem Onkel. Mit Descent in male line Krētheus u. Tyrō of the same gens, hätten nicht heirathen können; mit descent in female line Tyrō of gens ihrer Mutter, nicht ihres Vaters. Salmōneus also of different gens als Krētheus; die Heirath also within gentile usage. Der mythische Character der Personen gleichgültig, the legend applies gentile usages correctly; zeigt also hin auf descent in female line im hohen Alterthum (griechischen).

Nach der Zeit des Solon konnte ein Bruder seine Halbschwester heirathen, wenn sie born of different mothers, nicht aber when born of different fathers and same mother. Mit descent in female line, they would be of different gentes; aber in male descent line – u. diese existirte damals faktisch – of the same gens, ihre Heirath daher verboten. ⦗Dies also Ueberleben der alten Praxis, surviving the change of descent to the male line.⦘ Cimon heirathete seine Halbschwester Elpinice, vom selben Vater, aber verschiednen Müttern. Im Eubulides des Demosthenes sagt Euxithius: »ἀδελφὴν γὰρ ὁ πάππος (grandfather) οὑμὸς ἔγημεν οὐχ ὁμομητρίαν« (nicht von derselben Mutter). Vgl. id. Eubulides, 24.

Descent in the female line presupposes the gens to distinguish the lineage; war – ⦗wozu gar keine histor. evidence weiter nöthig, nachdem dies als archaic form entdeckt⦘ – ancient law der Latin, Grecian u. other Graeco-Italian gentes.

Annehmend Zahl of registered Athenians zur Zeit Solon’s = 60,000 u. dividing them equally unter den 360 Attic gentes, gäbe average von 160 persons to gens. Die gens was a great family (nenne es Geschlechtsfamilie) of kindred persons, with common religious rites, common burial place, u., in general, common lands. Intermarriage verboten. Mit change of descent to male line, rise of monogamy, exclusive inheritance in the children u. appearence of heiresses way gradually prepared for free marriage regardless of gens, except prohibition für certain degrees naher Blutsverwandtschaft. Marriages began in the group, alle males u. females of which – ausschliesslich der Kinder – were joint husbands u. wives; aber husbands u. wives were of different gentes; it ended in marriage between single pairs with an (officially) exclusive cohabitation.

Das Turanian Verwandschaftssystem (Asien, Africa, Australien) ⦗entsprechend dem Ganowánian in America⦘ muss auch unter Greek u. Latin tribes in selber Entwicklungsperiode geherrscht haben. Ein Characterzug desselben: die Kinder von Brüdern sind selbst Brüder u. Schwestern, als solche nicht intermarriable; die Kinder von Schwestern in demselben Verhältniss, unter selber prohibition. ⦗Wenn Bachofen diese Punaluan Ehen lawless findet, so fände Mann aus dieser Periode die meisten jetzigen Ehen zwischen nahen und fernen Cousins, sei es väterlicher, sei es mütterlicher Seite, blutschänderisch, nämlich als Ehen zwischen blutsverwandten Geschwistern⦘ Dieses erklärt die Legende der Danaiden (worauf Aeschylus seine »Schutzflehenden« gegründet).

Danaus u. Aegyptus waren Brüder u. descendants der Argivischen Io. Danaus, von different wives hatte 50 Töchter u. Aegyptus 50 Söhne; letztere sought the first in marriage; diese nach Turanian System – Brüder und Schwestern, unverheirathbar. Wenn damals descent in male line, hätten sie auch zur selben gens gehört, andres Heirathobstacle. Die 50 Danaustöchter – Danaiden – flohen von Aegypten nach Argos, um dem unlawful und blutschänderischen wedlock zu entfliehen. Dies event foretold to Io von Prometheus. (Aeschylus 853)

In den Schutzfliehenden des Aeschylus erklären die Danaiden den kindred Argives (in Argos), sie seien nicht vebannt worden von Aegypten, sondern:

nicht wegen Blutthat (Mord) durch Volksverbannenden Beschluss verurtheilt sondern aus Männerfurcht, die blutsverwandte u. unheilige Ehe der Söhne des Aegyptus verschmähend. — »Δίαν δὲ λιποῦσαι Χθόνα σύγκορτον Συρίᾳ φεύγομεν, Οὔτιν’ ἐφ’αἵματι δημηλασίᾳ Ψήφῳ πόλεως γνωσθεῖσαι, ἀλλ’αὐτογενήτων φυξάνορα Γάμο Αἰγύπτου παίδων ἀσεβῆ τ’ ὀνοταζόμεναι.« (Aesch. Suppl. v. 5 sq). — σύγχορτον = conterminam, da χόρτος (hortus, curtis) auch = terminus. So »χόρτος αὐλῆς, ὁ τῆς αὐλῆς ὅρος, die Grenze des Hofes« – So Eurip. Andromache v. 17 »σύγχορτα ναίω πεδία« Ich bewohne angrenzende Felder (Ebnen).

(Die Stelle scheint verdorben grammatice, sieh Schütz „Aeschylus“ vol. 2, p. 378.)

Nachdem sie den casus der Hiketiden gehört, beschlossen die Argiver in Council ihnen Schutz zu gewähren, was implicirt Existenz von Verbot solcher Ehen u. the validity of their objection. Zur Zeit, wo diese Tragödie aufgeführt in Athen, erlaubte u. forderte selbst das Athenische Gesetz marriage between the children of brothers im case of heiresses u. orphans, obgleich diese Regel auf solche Ausnahmsfälle beschränkt scheint.

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Pt. II. Ch. XV. Gentes in other tribes of the Human family.

Celtic branch der Aryan family (ausser denen of India) hält länger als irgend andre die Gentile Organization bei; – Scottish Clan in den Highlands of Scotland – feuds u. blood revenge, localization by gentes, use of lands in common, fidelity of clansman to his chief und members of the Clan to each other. – Irish Sept. – ⦗Celtisch: Villein-communities on French Estates.

Andrerseits: Phis or Phrara of Albania; die Familiengemeinschaften in Dalmatien u. Croatien.

Die Sanscrit »Ganas« (»gentes«).

Germans: were in Upper Status of Barbarism, when first known to the Romans; konnten kaum mehr developed ideas of government haben als Römer u. Griechen, wenn first known.

Tacitus. De Moribus Germanorum , c. 2. »Celebrant carminibus antiquis (quod unum apud illos memoriae et annalium genus est) Tuistonem deum, terra editum, et filium Mannum, originem gentis conditoresque. Manno tris filios adsignant, e quorum nominibus proximi Oceano – Ingaevones, medii – Hermiones, ceteri – Istaevones vocentur. Quidam autem, licentia vetustatis, plures deo ortos, pluresque ›gentis‹ (tribe) appellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos, Vandalios adfirmant …. Ceterum Germaniae vocabulum recens et nuper additum: quoniam, qui primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri, tunc Germani (Wehrmannen, guerriers) vocati sint: ita ›nationis‹ nomen, non gentis, evaluisse paulatim, ut omnes, primum a victore ob metum, mox a se ipsis invento nomine, Germani vocarentur.«

(natio muss hier = confederacy of tribes sein; jeder tribe = gens segmentated in mehre gentes. »Suevi majorem Germaniae partem obtinent, propriis adhuc nationibus nominibusque discreti«. Tacit. Germ. c. 38; die nationes sind hier verschiedene näher related tribes od. auch tribes (wie z. B. Seneca-Iroquois etc), auf keinen Fall gentes.)

⦗Lipsius interpretirt: »Die, qui transgressi primitus Rhenum sint, sind eben das Volk, das jetzt Tungri, damals Germani genannt wurde. Dieser (der Name ›Germani‹) Particularname einer einzigen Natio, nach u. nach auf alle übertragen.« Meint umgekehrt: »ita nationis nomen, non gentis evaluisse paulatim«: der Name prevailed nach u. nach, nicht als der einer gens (hier für erweiterte gens = tribe), sondern als nationis nomen, wo natio das ganze deutsche Volk, alle tribes zusammen ist.⦘

Dass alte Gesänge ihre einzigen historical account (»memoriae«) und Annalen, so fanden es die Spanier bei the village Indians . Eginhartus, „Vita Caroli Magni“: »Barbara et antiquissima carmina, quibus veterum regum actiones et bella canebantur, scripsit, memoriaeque mandavit.«

Jornandes, „De Gothis“: »In priscis eorum carminibus poene historico ritu recolitur etc.«

Tacit. lib. II. Annal. de Arminio: »Caniturque adhuc barbaras apud gentes.«

Julianus in „Antiochico“ nennt diese cantus »ἄγρια μέλη (agrestia carmina), παραπλήσια ταῖς κλαγγαῖς τῶν τραχὺ βοώντων ὀρνίθων (similia clangoribus avium aspere clamantium).«

Tacitus l.c. (German.) c. 3 spricht dann v. ihren Kriegsgesängen: »Sunt illis haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, (durch deren delivery: Art sie auszuschreien) [quem Barditum vocant,] accendunt animos« . barditus für barītus vom old German bar, baren, raise the voice: Tacitus confounds the battle cry mit dem battle song.

Tac. German. c. 5. beschreibt: »Terra … aut silvis horrida, aut paludibus foeda: … satis (ablat. von sata) ferax (fruchtbar an Korn): frugiferarum arborum impatiens: pecorum fecunda (abondant en bétail), sed plerumque improcera (nicht tall, klein). ne armentis (Ochsen) quidem suus honor (das Horn), aut gloria frontis. numero gaudent (de nombre de domage). eaeque solae et gratissimae opes sunt (sind ihr einziger Reichthum, den sie am meisten schätzen) … possessione et usu (Edelmetallen) haud perinde afficiuntur. (haud perinde nicht gleich den Römern, nicht so sehr als –) Est videre apud illos argentea vasa, legatis et principibus eorum muneri data, non in alia vilitate, quam quae humo (Erde, Lehm, Thon) finguntur: quamquam proximi, (die an den röm. Grenzen Wohnenden) ob usum commerciorum, aurum et argentum in pretio habent, formasque quasdam nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eligunt: interiores simplicius et antiquius permutatione mercium utuntur. Pecuniam probant veterem, et diu notam, Serratos (von serra = Säge, waren nämlich so indentirt), Bigatosque. (v. biga, hatten empreinte d’un char attelé de deux chevaux) Argentum quoque magis quam aurum sequuntur, nulla affectione animi, sed quia numerus argenteorum (argentei numi, silver coins) facilior usui est promiscua ac vilia mercantibus.«

Tac. Germ. c. 7: »Reges (die chiefs of the tribes), ex nobilitate (i.e. aus gens, i.e. aus more illustrious family of a gens u. mehr prominent gens), duces (the chief-warriors) ex virtute sumunt. (wie die Iroquois) Nec regibus infinita aut libera potestas; et duces exemplo potius quam imperio … admiratione praesunt.«

C. XI »De minoribus rebus principes consultant; de majoribus omnes etc.« (see das weitere)

C. XII »Licet apud concilium accusare quoque, et discrimen capitis intendere. … Eliguntur in iisdem conciliis et principes, qui jura per pagos (Gaue) vicosque (bourgades) reddunt. Centeni singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et auctoritas, adsunt.«

XX »Sororum filiis idem apud avunculum (oncle), qui apud patrem honor. Quidam sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum sanguinis arbitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt, tamquam ii (ziehn die nephews den Söhnen vor), et animum firmius, et domum latius teneant. Heredes tamen successoresque sui cuique liberi: et nullum testamentum. Si liberi non sunt, proximus gradus in possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi.«

Caesar de bello Gallic. VI, c. 22 »Agriculturae non student: majorque pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, carne consistit; neque quisquam agri modum certum, aut fines habet proprios; sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum, et quo loco visum est, agri adtribuunt, atque anno post alio transire cogunt. Ejus rei multas adferunt causas, ne assidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent; ne latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant; ne adcuratius, ad frigora atque aestus vitandos, aedificent; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas; qua ex re factiones, dissensionesque nascuntur; ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat.«

ib. c. XXIII: »Civitatibus maxima laus est, quam latissimas circum se vastatis finibus solitudines habere. Hoc proprium virtutis existimant, expulsos agris finitimos cedere, neque quemquam prope audere consistere; simul hoc se fore tutiores arbitrantur, repentinae incursionis timore sublato. Quum bellum civitas aut inlatum defendit, aut infert; magistratus, qui ei ei bello praesint, ut vitae necisque habeant potestatem, deliguntur. In pace, nullus est communis magistratus, sed principes regionum atque pagorum inter suos jus dicunt, controversiasque minuunt.« Die principes regionum u. pagorum – die Sachem – sind nicht die war-chiefs, sondern civil chiefs wie bei Indians; für den Krieg werden sie gewählt, wie dort ditto. ⦗Dies zu Caesar’s Zeit⦘

Caesar spricht oben von »gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierint« die Aecker jährlich vertheilt von den principes.

Tacit. Germ., VII, wo er von Armeeformation spricht: »nec fortuita conglobatio turmam (Reiterschwadron) aut cuneum (Infanteriekeil) facit, sed familiae et propinquitates«; hier tritt schon mehr familia hervor, aber bei Cäsar ist diese selbst bestimmt als gens.

ib. XXVI »Fenus agitare, et in usuras extendere ignotum: ideoque magis servatur quam si vetitum esset. Agri (les terres), pro numero cultorum (en raison du nombre der Bebauer \ cultor, des bras), ab universis (par toutes les peuplades) per vices (successivement) occupantur, quos mox inter se, secundum dignitatem, (bei Cäsar noch gleich), partiuntur; facilitatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant. arva (arable field, cultivated land) per annos mutant: et superest ager. nec enim cum ubertate et amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conserant (so dass sie planteraient des vergers), et prata separent (od. feraient enclore les prairies), et hortos rigent (od. arroseraient des jardins): sola terrae seges imperatur (Ils ne demandent à la terre que du blé).«

Die Mark und Gaueintheilung (pagus) scheinen groups of settlements associated with reference to military levies; transitional stages, diese organizations, between a gentile and a political system, the grouping of the people still resting on consanguinity.

Nach der form des statement bei Caesar scheint die family syndyasmian gewesen zu sein.

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1. Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben. ↩