Heft XI (1880–1881): Exzerpte aus W. Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain. II (Bronzezeit)

Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).¹ Traducción al español

[W. Boyd Dawkins: Early Man in Britain. Fortsetzung]

[Ch. X] The Bronze Age.

Celtic Invasion of the British Isles.

Während Gaul u. Spain conquered by the Celts of history, die Iberic peoples in Britain secured from invasion during the whole of the Neolithic age. Im Lauf der Zeit knowledge of Bronze spread of through the Continent u. die superiority of the civilisation, deren Emblem das Bronz, led to the invasion of Britain. Bronze weapons ensured victory over the enemies armed with the old weapons of stone … bronze weapons affected warfare ebenso wie Pulver im Mittelalter. The tall, round- or broadheaded Celts Avantgarde der grossen Arian army … brachten Bronze nach Britain u. eroberten nearly jeden bekannten Theil derselben (British Isles) as proved durch their tombs scattered over the country gleichmässig in Egld, Schottld, Wales, Irland. Die conquered peoples lived probably in slavery; nur preserved gegen absorption in the West, wo further retreat abgeschnitten durch Ocean. Sie lebten jedoch in Late Bronze Age noch in Yorkshire (Northeastern) ⦗proved durch human skulls discovered in the Heathery Burn cave near Durham, in association with bronze articles⦘

Die introduction of Bronze in andre Länder Europa’s nicht marked durch an invasion, wie in Britain. In Scandinavia the Neolithic inhabitants acquired it ohne appearance of a new people; in Switzerland u. France without any break in the ethnical continuity; jedoch, da die Celts in East u. South of Gaul zuerst die discovery erhielten, they the first to use the new weapons in their wars with their hereditary enemies, the Iberic tribes of the West.

In den British isles vertrieb use of bronze nicht at once that of polished stone. Z. B. in tumulus zu Upton Lovel, Wilts , 4 flint celts, a perforated hammer-axe, numerous bone-implements u. a bronze pin zusammen mit unburnt bones of the dead. Aehnliches entdeckt in 3 barrows in Yorkshire, wo [in two cases] polished stone axes mit den ashes of the dead, u. with vases. The practice of cremation u. die presence of the »characteristic« pottery ⦗of Bronze age⦘ unknown in this country before. Während die chiefs u. rich possessed bronze implements and weapons, the poorer classes continue to use those of stone. Bronze nur in universal use when it became cheap. [342–344]

Classification of Bronze age in Britain.

Mr. Evans ( Proceed. Soc. Antiq. 23 Januar 1873. The Bronze Period) theilt das Bronze Age in Britain 1) Early Bronze age: period of transition ; bronze superseding stone; characterised by presence of bronze daggers and plain wedge-shaped axes, originally modelled from a prototype in stone. ⦗[Fig. 114:] Bronze dagger-blade, Round Barrow, East Kennet, Wilts, [Fig. 115:] ditto Barrow, Camerton, Somerset⦘ ⦗In einem Fall in Italien a polished stone celt has been cast in bronze⦘

In folgender Tabelle referable to the Bronze Age in Britain, the contents der burial places explored durch Rev. W. Greenwell in Nord England, durch Mr. Bateman in Derbyshire u. Dr. Thurnam in Wiltshire. Alles das belongs to the Early Bronze Age, the higher forms of Bronze implements u. weapons are entirely absent.

Sieh folgende Seite.

I) Early Bronze Age in Britain and France.

II) Late Bronze Age in Britain

Diese IIte Division des Bronze age characterised by the appearance of swords, palstaves u. socketed celts; more ornate ornaments u. implements, known to have been used at the same time from their having been found together. Die obige Tabelle represents some of the more important forms discovered in Britain.

Diese 2 divisions auch in Irland, wo viele der simpler forms of gold ornaments found from time to time, as well as hoards of the kind discovered in Dowris bog.

In Erwägung der discoveries on the Continent sehr probable that the wedge-shaped axe u. dagger u. personal ornaments were the first articles of Bronze known to the Neolithic people u. die habit of burying diese Erstlinge muss fortgedauert haben to the later age of Bronze, whence the exceeding rarity of the higher forms in the tumuli. Two socketed spearheads, 1 palstave u. 1 socketed celt recorded from burial places of the Bronze age in Britain.

Ferner zu bemerken: Bronze has been used in all ages since the Neolithic; viele der more beautiful bronze ornaments u. the shields u. armour found in Britain gehören daher wahrscheinlich dem Age of Iron an. Bei Entdeckung von isolirten Artikeln das age nur unterscheidbar by the forms u. style of ornamentation u. an ancient type in diesen may survive into an age sehr remote von dem in which it was normal. [344–349]

The axe in Culture.

Man kann Nicht overestimate the work done by the axe in advancing civilisation. Steinäxte, leicht blunted u. broken, nicht stark wirkend auf die vast forests of pine , oak u. beeches , womit greater part of Continent u. Britain covered in Neolithic age; clearings for pasture u. culture damals hauptsächlich produced by fire aid ; aber clearings rasch under the edge of the bronze axe; mit Verschwinden der Wälder werden wilde Thiere rar, Jagd weniger wichtig, Agrikultur verbessert, höhere Civilisation folgend. Invention of the metal axe daher of the highest importance in the history of civilisation.

3 types of Axt in Bronze age: 1) oldest, simple wedge secured by being fastened into the wooden handle, musste in course of time split its handle; um das to prevent

2. erfunden 2t type. Die edges of the simple wedge gradually developed flanges u. passed into the palstave.

3)d form, wo handle was let into a socket in the head of the axe. Strange that the bronze-smiths should not have hit upon the mode by which we insert handles in our axes um so mehr da die hammer- u. battle-axes of stone, perforated for the reception of the straight handle, were used in the early Bronze ages; diese waren aber nicht copied from bronze originals. [349–352]

Habitations in Britain in the Bronze age: at present the round houses of the ancient Celtic inhabitants are represented by the round stone dwellings of the peasants still used in the North of Scotland and the Orkneys. Manchmal, um sich zu schützen, houses were built upon piles driven into a morass or bottom of a lake wie in Barton Mere, bei Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, ⦗diese pile houses exposed 1867 durch Rev. Harry Jones ⦘ ⦗see „Suffolk Inst. of Archaeology and Natural History“. June 1869 ⦘ wo bronze spear-heads discovered, one 18 inches long, in and around piles and large blocks of stone wie in einigen lakes der Schweiz; damit fragments of pottery, vast quantities of broken bones of stag, wild boar etc, auch noch of urus. Hierdurch bewiesen dass letzterer lebte in Britain in a wild state bis ins Bronze age; dies jedoch der einzige case of its occurrence at this period in Britain till now known. [352, 353]

Lake dwellings in Ireland: Crannoges, or platforms of clay and stone, interlaced with or supported by timber, based on small shallows or islets in the Irish lakes, have been inhabited bis 1641 p. Ch., hier bei Dungannon, in Roughan lake, found damals shelter Sir Phelim O’Neill . Nach Mr. Kinahan ( Proceed. R. Irish Acad. X, part I, 31 ) some of these platforms supported a circular stockade worin die huts der inhabitants arranged under one roof common to all, which sloped from the stockade to a courtyard in the centre.

Die s.g. Cloghauns – small stone houses – und die wooden cabins or huts, constructed of wattles or tempered clay, worin das Irish peasantry lebte bis in historic period, wahrscheinlich überliefert von Bronze age wie die habit of using crannoges; ⦗ebenso die round beehive huts der Orkneys u. des North of Scotland⦘. Mit diesen cloghauns related die raths or forts, abounding in Ireland u. Britain. Sir William Wilde (Cat. R. Ir. Acad. I, p. 99) says: Noch im 16t Jhdt „the native Irish retained their wandering habits, tilling a piece of fertile land in the spring, then retiring with their herds to the booleys, or dairy habitations (I) (generally in mountain districts) in the summer, and moving about where the herbage afforded sustenance to their cattle. They lived, as Spencer describes them in the reign of Elizabeth , ‘on their milk and white meats’ (curds, cheese, with meal, and probably calves’ flesh etc), and returning in autumn to secure their crops, they remained in community in their forts or entrenched villages in the winter. The remains of 1000nds of these forts or raths still stud the lowlands of every county in Ireland trotz der Tausende which have been obliterated. They are earthen enclosures, generally circular, and varying in extent from a few perches to an acre or more, afforded protection to the inhabitants and their flocks against the ravages of beasts of prey womit the country then abounded, or gegen die predatory incursions of hostile tribes in war or during a cattle raid. A breastwork of earth von 4–8 feet high surrounded the enclosure, being the material ready at hand, and the most easily worked … In some a ditch surrounded the earthwork. Upon some of the plains, as well as the hill-sides, stone fortresses occasionally erected, where such material abounded loose on the surface, or could be procured in the neighbourhood without quarrying. These duns or stone forts always put together without cement, but they are more of a military than a domestic nature. In the circle of these forts, both stone and earthen, existed chambers and galleries, dienend wahrscheinlich as granaries or places of security for the preservation of valuables, and to which the young and weak might resort in cases of invasion or sudden attack.“

Caves selten used in Bronze age as habitations; ausser at Heathery Burn, solche caves entdeckt in the Cat Hole at Gower , Glamorgan (South Wales), Thor’s Cave in Staffordshire u. Cave Dale, Castleton (Derbyshire). [353–355]

Clothing and Ornaments of the Bronze Folk in Britain.

The rich u. chiefs clothed in linen, or in woollen homespun, wovon fragments discovered in Scale-House barrow, Rylstone, Yorkshire. In Scandinavia they wore woollen cloaks, and a round woollen cap on the head, u. ihre legs u. feet protected by leather leggings u. sandals. ⦗Zu Dömmestorp in Holland; zu Borum-Eshoc, bei Aarhuus (Jutland)⦘ A dagger, attached to their girdle in a sheath of wood or leather, and an axe – their constant companions; face shaven u. the beard, moustaches, or whiskers sometimes plucked out; Hair worn long, arranged into a pyramid etc sufficiently long to allow of the use of a hair pin 20 inches long. In the lake-dwellings of Switzerland, they used head-rests, made of pottery, like those of the ancient Egyptians in wood, in order to prevent their coiffure being disarranged in sleep. Similar articles used by the Abyssinian dandies of the present day u. other African peoples, whose wonderful head-dresses described by Cameron u. Stanley ; ditto used in Japan u. New Zealand. – They wore earrings u. necklaces, pendants u. amulets made of stone u. bone, wie aus Bronze u. Glas. Manchmal their ornaments of precious metals … Selbe Sorte v. gold ornaments in Ireland, Bretagne, Germany u. in Scandinavia in bronze. (i. e. = den golden coronets or minns and collars worn in Ireland) [355–358]

Lighting fires: by striking a flint flake against a piece of iron pyrites; werden manchmal zusammen gefunden in den tumuli. [358, 359]

Woodcutting: the important position of the axe in the Bronze age proved by its numbers. Chisels, gouges u. adzes u. little bronze saws, 3–5 inches long, apparently, from their small size, imitated from the serrated flint [flakes] of the Neolithic age, were most usual tools for cutting wood. [359]

Spinning u. Weaving: im Neolithic age material – linen; in Bronze age auch wool spun into thread u. woven into cloth. In dem Scale House, Rylstone, Yorkshire the body had been covered v. head to foot in cloth before being buried in the coffin, composed of a hollow oak trunk. The body had been turned into adipocere (Leichenwachs, Fettwachs). Woollen fabrics – ganz destroyed by fire u. rapidly decaying in water – nur preserved under those imperfectly known u. exceptional conditions wo der body turned into Adipocere, u. die bones into phosphate of iron, from the percolation of water charged with salts of iron, that they withstand decay. [359, 360]

Agriculture u. farming: harvest gathered in with reaping hooks (bronze) of the small kind used for cutting off the ears, wie allgemein unter Greeks u. Romans. In den sketches etc des Bronze folk in Scandinavia, the horse employed both for riding and driving, and oxen used for ploughing. [360]

Pottery. – Cups of Gold and Amber. Pottery (in Brit. Isles) made by hand and ornamented with various patterns in dots u. right lines. [360]

Bronze-working: dass in Britain, – wie in France, Germany, Scandinavia – Bronze implements made; proved by discoveries of stocks in trade of bronze-smiths, in which hammers, anvils, cold chisels, pointed awls u. stamps met with for working the bronze. Auch Moulds in stone u. in bronze used for casting, manchmal found along mit broken implements u. ornaments ready for the smelting pot. Die bronze-smiths were acquainted mit art of casting, of hardening the bronze by hammering, of beating it out into thin plates, and working it in repoussé. Dr. Robinson legte 1848 der R. Ir. Academy Fünde vor von bronze articles in Dowris bog, bei Parsonstown, King’s County, Ireland ; bestanden aus 13 bronze trumpets, some cast, and others with riveted seams, 31 celts, 29 spear-heads, 3 gouges, 31 bells, several bronze vessels of large size (in einem davon 2 pieces of bronze neatly riveted together). Some of the objectswere imperfectly cast, others injured and broken up; there were also small jets of metal which had overflowed from the moulds, and pieces of sandstone used for polishing, alles welches showed that the accumulation of implements and weapons formed the stock-in-trade of a bronze-founder, similar to those met with in England, u. still more abundantly in France. [362, 363]

Weapons and Warfare: Die bronze shields u. armour or helmets discovered in Britain are hier referable to the age of iron ; ⦗während der Bronzzeit die in Britain probably made of hide or wood⦘ dagegen [found] in Scandinavia, wo das Bronzage bis zur Christian era dauert. [364, 365]

Burial Customs. Das Neolithic folk interred the dead surrounded by the implements, weapons, and ornaments for use in the future life. Aber invasion of Britain durch die bronze-using Celtic tribes marked durch Burning ⦗dadurch purifying by fire!⦘ die dead with their possessions. Aber mit Cremation nicht ganz abolished inhumation; beide simultaneous going on wie shown durch die discoveries of Thurnam in Südengland, of Bateman in Derbyshire, of Greenwell in den Northern counties. Cremation – nach Dr. Fr. Wiberg – may have been connected with fire-worship, inhumation dagegen weiter employed by the Neolithic Britons from force of habit u. from its cheapness by the poorer classes.

Barrows und cairns des Bronze age generally round, ohne large sepulchral chambers with passages leading into them, wie in Neolithic burial places; doch [sepulchrial chambers] nicht – in Bronze age – uncommon in Ireland, Scotland u. France. Wo cremation, the ashes of the dead collected into a funeral urn, 12–18 inches high, and placed in a chamber, either standing upright with its mouth covered by a slab of stone or by flint, or with its mouth downward etc. Various articles and implements of daily use thrown into the fire, and the burnt remains sometimes placed in the urn with the ashes of the dead.

The implements, weapons u. ornaments wurden auch interred for use in the world of spirits, zus. mit drinking cups u. seltner mit curious perforated earthenware vessels probably used to carry the sacred fire etc food also placed for the dead, as well as flakes and splinters of flint. The tumulus or cairn carefully raised over the urn u. das memory of the dead maintained by periodic feasts, after which either earth or stone added to the height of the mound or cairn, each feast being represented by a layer of broken and burnt bones of the shorthorned ox, horse, sheep, or goat, and hog, together with charcoal. Nicht selten enthält ein barrow od. cairn inhumation u. in höherer Schicht Urne (cremation) doch findet sich manchmal in der unteren Schicht Urne (cremation) u. in der obern (also jüngeren) inhumation.

Aus den articles found in the barrows folgt, dass die Bewohner in Südengland im Bronze age richer u. more civilised als die des midland u. des North; unvermeidlich da Bronze civilisation eingeführt hier in den nearest portions of Britain to France (resp. perhaps Belgium). [366–371]

Temples of Bronze Age – Avebury (near Devizes, in Wiltshire) – Stonehenge (on Salisbury Plain)

The numerous circles of stone or earth in Britain u. Ireland, varying in diameter v. 30 or 40 feet to 1200 – temples standing in closest possible relation to the burial places.

Nach Dr. Thurnam barrows of the Bronze age cluster thickly around Avebury, 106 being still to be seen in the 16 square miles near it; while round Stonehenge Sir Richard Colt Hoare counted 300 within 12 square miles, u. in the days of Stukeley 128 were visible from a hill close by. … Smaller circles found scattered over the moors and hilltops in the South of England, in Wales, Cumberland u. Scotland. – A most obvious transition from the tomb to the temple … Probably the idea of both large and small circles sprang from the stones placed round the base of the circular hut, which was the usual habitation in the Prehistoric period.

The large standing-stones or menhirs, keineswegs selten wo large blocks of stone were easily obtainable, können angehören ebensowohl dem Neolithic als dem Bronze Age, waren objects of worship wie der unwrought stone at Hyettos, adored by the Greeks als Herakles, or that taken for the Thespian Eros in the Boeotian festivals, or those worshipped by the Hindus.

Hollows or cups für die reception of offerings to the spirits of the dead recorded by Sir James Simpson („Archaic Sculpturings“. Edinburgh. 1867) on several megalithic circles and avenues, as well as on menhirs and the stones of cromlechs and chambered tumuli Some belong probably to the Bronze as well as the Neolithic age. [371–378]

Artistic Designs. on articles of the Bronze age in Britain u. Ireland are nearly all geometric, animal forms not represented. Von solchen principal patterns des Bronze age noted by M. Chantre in France alle mit wenigen exceptions characteristic of the Bronze age in Britain. The pottery meist ornamented mit a pattern rudely impressed with a cord or twisted thong, or with the point of a stick. ⦗Im Bronze age wie in ancient Greece u. Italy noch inhumation neben cremation⦘ [378, 379]

France in the Bronze Age. die numerous discoveries in the last 30 years in France u. Switzerland recently collected by M. Chantre (L’Age du Bronze) ; divisions des Bronze Age ähnlich wie in Britain, nämlich: 1) Transition de l’age de la Pierre à l’age du Bronze: phase cébennienne (Region der Cevennes) = Epoque Morgienne ⦗Morges in Waadtland⦘ of de Mortillet .

2. Age du Bronze proprement dit: phase rhodanienne (valley of the Rhone) = époque Larnaudienne des Mortillet . Larnaud bei Lons-le-Saulnier, Jura.

3. Transition de l’age du Bronze à l’age du fer: phase Moeringienne = Epoque Hallstatienne des Mortillet. Die 2 ersten époques sind exact equivalents of those of Britain.

Was die cébennienne Period characterisirt ist die association in tombs u. sepulchral caves der ordinary Neolithic implements mit Bronze articles u. ornaments. Dagegen in dem 2ten od. Rhodanian age bronze nicht länger selten; has become necessary in every-day life; smiths’ shops have sprung up in various regions wo die broken instruments und ornaments were worked into new forms. Diese 2 divisions shade off one into another, u. nicht more clearly defined in France als in Britain. [379, 380]

The age of Transition or the Early Bronze Age. in den contents of 147 chambered tombs der Cévennes Hauptdifferenz von denen of Neolithic age ist die addition of articles of Bronze u. Glas; daggers relativ häufig, Lances sehr selten, u. nur eine Bronze axe of the simple wedge-shaped type met with. Alle Bronzartikel klein, leicht transportirbar, die meisten bestimmt für personal ornament; die introduction der personal ornaments – bes. of glas, v. Aejyptischer od. Phönizischer Manufactur probably – vor andern Artikeln zeigt Erfahrung stets bei contact of peoples in different stages of civilisation; z. B. jetzt natives of Africa ziehn Articles which minister to their vanity denen of practical use vor u. glass beads, used as a medium of exchange by the traders u. pass from hand to hand in Regionen far beyond those wohin brit. Waffen u. implements penetrate. Die „period of transition“ result des intercourse der Einwohner Frankreichs u. der Schweiz, at close of Neolithic age, mit den civilisirten peoples südlich der Alpen … Cremation in France wie in Britain – Seit bei Seit mit inhumation. [380–381]

The late age of Bronze in France u. Schweiz.

Die pile-dwellings of France u. Schweiz, namentlich lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel u. Bienne enthalten remains die dem late Bronze age angehören: various implements for casting bronze u. stamping it u. working it in repoussé mit tools for working wood, reaping hooks u. swords, daggers, lances, arrowheads, horse furniture, personal ornaments ; [the whole] forming ganz verschiedne series von der der ersten Bronze period; zugleich aber noch damit stone implements wie saws, wedges, scrapers, to a smaller degree auch axes. Nun may be objected: such collection – in and around the lake habitations – können accumulirt sein während langer Jahrhunderte habitation desselben place; die articles brauchen daher nicht contemporär zu sein. A relic-bed may have been the result of accumulation during long periods of time. Dies gilt aber nicht: in den Fällen wo die very frequent conflagrations ⦗nach Colonel Schwab about ¼ der pile-dwellings in the lakes von Bienne u. Neuchâtel burnt⦘ machten untersinken at same time to bottom of lake heavy stone u. bronze articles. Ferner passt der Einwurf nicht auf die „trésors“ or hoards of bronze articles prepared for use, and concealed while carried from one place to another u. solche trésors met with in 29 localities in France; ebenso wenig trifft’s die 67 hoards in Frankreich u. Schweiz of broken implements u. articles collected for the purpose of being worked up by the bronze-smiths. In beiden cases the articles were in use simultaneously; in beiden – wie in den pile-dwellings des early Bronze age – plain wedge-axe absent, während all other articles of a higher u. better kind als die des early Bronze age. [381–383]

Hoards of Bronze Merchandise. Wichtigster hoard of merchandise in Frkch gemacht zu Réallon, nachdem ein heftiger Sturm den District verwüstet hatte; die waters of a stream traversing the little village Réallon had hollowed out a new channel for itself u. most of the antiquities were discovered by the villagers in the earth at a little distance away; mit den discoveries später ibidem made by M. Chantre – 461 bronze articles, comprising knives, sickles, lance-heads, horse-bits, rings, buttons, pendants, bracelets; zugleich unter denselben several small stone rings, a bead of amber u. 2 beads of blue glass. Réallon liegt on a route frequented for a long time, leading vom Thal der Durance zu dem des river Drac, probably ⦗nach M. Chantre⦘ taken by travellers von primitive Etruria , von denen die inhabitants der lake-dwellings die knowledge of Bronze erhielten. Die discovery represents daher the goods of a merchant selected to suit the market of the north u. west. The abundance of personal ornaments darin entspricht selber abundance der personal ornaments in the sepulchres of early Bronze Age. Aehnlich hoard of Vaudrevanges bei Saarlouis ⦗wo u. a. ein Schwerdt ähnlich dem beschrieben by comte Gozzadini, aus Ronzano, in Italy⦘; die proportion der ornaments in diesen hoards fast dieselbe wie in den sepulchres der Cévennes des early Bronze age; im ersten Fall sind sie 75.02%, im 2ten 79.87. Diese articles also en route to be sold to those who ultimately deposited them, as their chief valuables, in the tombs. [383, 384]

Hoards of the Bronze Smith: Die deposits der fragments of metal, zusammen mit den necessary implements to work it in France u. Schweiz – 67 in Zahl – unterscheiden sich dadurch von den hoards in Merchandise, that the articles have been prepared for working up again. In letztrem Fall die articles worn out u. broken, im erstren neu u. selected for the market.

Der hoard entdeckt bei Lons-le-Saulnier (Jura) in Kartoffelfeld zu Larnaud illustrirt association of articles – 1485 pieces – intended to pass through the melting pot u. daher imperfect. Unter den materials for smelting ein perfect ingot of bronze, wiegend 2840 kilos, boat-shaped u. perforated in the centre for convenience of carriage; similar ingots met in different parts of France. u. a. gefunden folgende:

Materials for smelting u. Implements for Working Bronze

The cold chisels composed of bronze, with a large percentage of tin; der stamp for working the plates of bronze, or for making potteries or moulds; one is terminated by a disk, on which 2 circles are engraved round a central point; the other is a small elongated rectangular implement, with one end composed of a line of points and the other of a series of oblique lines; both evidently employed in the composition of the beautiful patterns so conspicuous on the personal ornaments; also a manufacture of some of the higher works of art, carried on at this very spot; ferner:

Implements for various purposes:

Razors of same type as those found in Italy, Schweiz u. Britain.

The arms (found): 1) swords and daggers 72. 2) scabbard ends and ferrules 16. 3) Arrow heads 18. 4) Lance heads 54. 5) Ferrules for end of lance 51.

Personal ornaments (wichtigste): 1) bracelets (214) 2) Torques (32) 3) Pins (61) 4) Brooch (1); 5) Disks made of wire twisted into a spiral (8) 6) Pendants, chains, rings (121) 7) Appliqués or ornamental plates of bronze (57); 8) buttons (183) 9) Ornamented hooks (3) 10) Clasps (30); 11) Buckle (1); 12) Round beads (60)

The bracelets are solid or hollow, of the split-ring type, round or flat in section. [384–387]

Lake Dwellings of Late Bronze Age. Dieselben Artikel – from the hoards both of the Bronze-Smith u. the Merchant – occur in lake-dwellings of France u. Switzerland. – Bronze swords at Moeringen with hilts inlaid mit Iron, side by side with bronze-hilted iron swords u. bronze bracelets inlaid with iron. – Ausser den früher erwähnten geometrischen designs on the metalwork u. the pottery des late Bronze Age in Switzerland, erscheint auch Spirale, aber by no means so common as in German u. Scandinavian bronzes.

Pottery of the late Bronze age in France u. Switzerland far better than that of Britain, and bears obvious traces of foreign influence. [388, 389]

The Bronze Age in Scandinavia: Hier auch eingetheilt in early u. late period durch Worsaae, Montelius etc.

Early age: great stone-chambered tombs with many skeletons, containing bronze implements and weapons beautifully adorned with spirals and right lines; all have been cast; the ornaments never engraved on the metals.

Late age: tomb consists of small stone chambers with cinerary urns, cremation for the most part replacing inhumation. The ornaments sometimes engraved or stamped in repoussé. Socketed celts appear u. articles, die nach Montelius, derived from the South of Europe. Meisten jedoch manufactured in Scandinavia. – The Bronze age in Scandinavia remarkable nicht nur für Schönheit der workmanship, besonders der hilts der short leafshaped swords, sondern auch für die variety of weapons u. ornaments, wovon viele derived von more southern regions – liefern evidence as to the overlapping of the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe, north of the Alps. Z. B. die Scandinavian Bronze Battle Axes plated with Gold etc, used nur as insignia of rank – are of the same pattern as those represented on the walls of the Etruscan tomb at Caere, u. durchaus unlike any axes of the Bronze age of France or Britain. They belong to the Iron age of Italy. Im tomb of Jaegersborg bei Copenhagen a bronze shield found ornamented mit gold leaf, worked en repoussé, u. v. selbem Styl wie andre Goldartikel belonging to the late Celtic or Prehistoric Iron Age in Britain u. to the Early Etruskan age of Hallstadt. [389–392]

Sculptures of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia: Sculptures on the glacier-worn rocks of Sweden, and on some of the tombs, beschrieben von Bruzelius , Nilsson u. Holmberg geben vivid idea of the life of the people in the North of Europe.

Z. B. Man with Bronze Axe on a rock at Simrislund, Scania.

Sculptured rock at Tegneby, Bohuslän. u. a. darauf: a man ploughing with a yoke of oxen; an archer shooting; a party of 4 men, armed mit round shields u. axes, are fighting; Boats represented, some of them drawn in line, and one in front with a covered stern possesses an awning.

On a rock in the same place a group of warriors on horseback contending with spears and armed with oblong shields – earliest example of the horse being used for riding in Northern Europe.

Engraved Slab Tomb, Kivik, Scania. Zeigt u. a. pair of horses drawing a chariot of the rudest construction on which stands the driver; in the lefthand upper corner an armed man mit 3 captives, u. at the bottom a row of 8 draped figures with a man in front of them; auf andrem slab in same tomb diese figures wiederholt; the draped figures are arranged 4 on each side of what appears to be an altar; while a row of men are represented above, 3 blowing the large curved horns of bronze; repeatedly found in Scandinavia. etc etc. the whole set belong to the late bronze age of Scandinavia or the Iron age of Italy, France u. Britain.

The boats have highly ornamented ends, are propelled by broad paddles; in one the men are keeping stroke and the master in the prow of the boat is directing them. Manchmal, aber selten, they carry one mast with sails, wie im Slab at Järrestad , figured by Mr. Bruzelius. Long galleys similar to those engraved on the rocks, with prows u. sterns lifted high up above the water, frequently adorn the blades of razors u. other articles of the Bronze age in Scandinavia. – Aus diesen figures ersichtlich dass die Scandinavian people des Bronze age possessed of Boats sehr superior to the rude Neolithic canoes u. capable of taking long voyages; ⦗wahrscheinlich diese boats die precursors of the long ships, snakes u. seadragons ⦗which carried the terror of the Northern pirates fast on whole seaboard of Europe⦘⦘. Diese boats imply considerable amount of intercourse zwischen Scandinavia u. den adjoining countries. [392–396]

[Ch. XI] Origin of Bronze and the Bronze Civilisation.

No Copper Age in Europe.

Copper celts met in Ireland, Hungary u. France, aber gehören meist zu most advanced types in Bronze, ganz bes. in Ungarn; wahrscheinlich due to the want of tin nöthig für manufacture of Bronze. Kein Intervening of copper alone weder north of the Alps u. Pyrenees, noch in Greece u. Italy zwischen Stone u. Bronze ages. Für sich allein Kupfer für cutting purposes nicht viel nützlicher als Stone wegen seiner softness … The native copper of Lake Superior (Nordamerika) used by the Red Indians for an unknown period; used dennoch keine Kupferinstruments. Zur Zeit der Entdeckung der Neuen Welt die peoples von Peru u. Mexico used bronze, während die ruder American tribes waren in Neolithic stage of culture … noch minder in Europe wo native copper so rare u. the ores would have to be reduced to obtain the metal.

Bronze introduced in Europe von other area, wo durch beständige experiments die properties both of copper u. tin gefunden, ultimately combining them together in the proportions so generally observed in the weapons u. the implements des Bronze age. Keine Spur solcher series of experiments in Europa. [397, 398]

The distribution of Copper Ores.

Plinius derives »copper« from Cyprus ⦗aber Cyprus may be derived from Copper⦘, wo es zuerst gemünzt worden sein soll u. wovon die Römer grössten Theil ihrer Zufuhr erhielten. Es findet sich fast in jedem Theil Europa’s u. muss früh attention auf sich gezogen haben von den schönen grün, blau, u. red colours of its ores. Findet sich in:

Britain in Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, Derbyshire, Cheshire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Wales. Worked hier sehr früh; discovery of „two mining tools or picks“ in old mine bei Llandudno (North Wales) zusammen mit stone hammers made of large rounded pebbles, with grooves cut round them for the reception of a handle of osier ; ebenso old tools in copper mines zu Alderley Edge bei Manchester, zus. mit stone hammers u. stone wedges. Aehnliche Stein tools in den Kupferminen v. Spanien; in denen bei Cordova flint implements u. picks made of stags’ antler ähnlich denen found in den Neolithic flint mines of Cissbury u. Brandon, ebenso stonehammers of the kind found in Britain. Also früh im Bronze age copper mines worked in Europe u. die dort gefundnen hammers are of the same form as those used by the Red Indians in working the native copper of Lake Superior. [399, 400]

Tin-stone frequently associated with Gold.

Tinstone (oxide of tin = SnO2 ) od. Cassiterit (Zinnstein) nicht durch Farbe auffällig wie Kupfer – braun, gelblich grün, manchmal opaque u. manchmal transparent – sehr limited in its distribution in Europe; occurs in granitic u. highly altered crystalline rocks, in veins disseminated through the mass; od. wo die Rocks worn away by frost, rain, u. rivers, it is found in irregular lumps u. grains, scattered through the loam, sand, u. gravel which constitute the stream-works. Leicht erkennbar durch sein gross Gewicht. Häufig in den streamworks gefunden associated mit Gold; dies durch seine brilliant colour u. Unzerstörbarkeit war the first metal to catch the eye of man, u. sobald es sought by simple process of washing, the heavy tin-stone would be left behind along with it; durch accident zeigte sich dass flung into the fire the dull stone became transfigured into the glittering metal. Mr. J. A. Phillips communicated dem Dawkins Folgendes, was er observed zu Zamora (Leon), was wahrscheinlich survival into our own times des most ancient mode of reducing the ore. Says Phillips:

„in 1856 I visited the province of Zamora, dort, in a hamlet near St. Martin, I met with a family occupied in treating tin-ores on their own account. The children – several – collected rich shode stones of tin-oxide from the surface of the neighbouring ploughed fields, brought them in a reed-basket to a rough open shed or hovel; here they were broken with a hammer upon a big stone, and the extraneous matter was roughly picked out. – The furnace, lined with clay resulting from the decomposition of granite, was a cylinder 10 inches in diameter, about 2 feet in depth, situated in the middle of a cubic yard of rough masonry constructed without mortar. – In the centre of the top of this was the opening of the furnace, and on the side towards the prevailing wind a screen of masonry was built to the height of some 2 feet; externally … the apparatus … ähnelnd to a large chair built solid to the seat, enclosing a chimney-pot extending from the middle of it nearly to the floor-level. A blast was employed, produced by an old pair of weezy blacksmith’s bellows, apparently of English make, placed behind the screen of masonry, the tuyère being inserted about 4 inches above the bottom. The tap-hole, which was on the opposite side, was kept constantly open. – the ore collected by the smaller children, dann broken u. roughly picked over by a bigger brother, was finally charged into the furnace, alternately with handfuls of fuel, by the mother, while the father blew the bellows. Charcoal made from the roots of a species of heath, locally plentiful, diente als fuel, no flux of any kind used, the metal and slag issuing from the open tap-hole were received in a fragment of a broken cast-iron pot. Nur sehr wenig slag produced, which, v. Zeit zu Zeit mit dem Metall in den pot fallend, was, as it set, removed with an iron crook. – Per hour nur produced a few pounds, then, after being cast into strips, it was usually sold to travelling tinkers für tinning of copper vessels.“

Zinn – wie Kupfer – wegen its softness unfitted for cutting purposes, marks daher no era in der Civilisation der world; war used in Bronze age unalloyed, merely for purposes of ornament u. for inlaying pottery, wie das discovered in the pile-dwellings of the lake of Bourget. [400–402]

Zinn in Scandinavien, Germany u. Britain. Zinndistricts von Schweden u. Finland erst in modernen Zeiten bearbeitet, hier also out of question.

In Deutschland Zinn – in den mountains v. Sachsen u. Böhmen – worked seit undenklicher Zeit; wahrscheinlich in Bronze age schon in diesen Districten, da great number u. variety of bronze articles found in the adjacent regions.

In Cornwall worked before Geschichte of Britain begann, nach Tradition durch Phönicier, die von dort brisk trade carried mit dem Greek mart of Marseilles.

Im Süden v. Irland – wo Zinn found in the stream-works of the mountains of Wicklow, along mit Gold – es auch worked since ancient times. [402, 403]

Tin Mines worked in France u. Spain in the Bronze Age. Tin met in Bretagne, close to Ploermel (Morbihan), worked in Bronze age as shown durch bronze palstave, mit a polished stone celt, in the old stream-works near Villeder . – Ditto Tin in the Upper Vienne u. old stream-works to be seen in La Creuse u. La Corrèze u. bis Lizolle im Department des Allier. Nach Mons. de Mortillet die Cassiterides der ancients zu suchen eher in den islands off the coast der Bretagne als in den Scilly isles od. in Cornwall. [Nach] Hans Hildebrand (Congrès Intern. Archéol. Préh. Stockholm) hat Strabo recht, placing them in the West of Spain.

Iberian peninsula war one of the chief centres of tin supply für die civilisirten Mittelmeer-Völker; Plinius (XXXIV, 47) sagt dass Zinnstein associirt mit Gold in the stream-working of Galicia; in Asturias primitive tools discovered in the old workings. It is picked up – tin ore – at the present day by children in the fields, in the valley of the Douro etc. (sieh oben) It abounds also in Portugal, bei Bragança u. in other localities. [403, 404]

The Mines of Tuscany worked by Etruskans. Wichtige Entdeckung brought before the Archaeological Congress at Buda Pesth, by Prof. Capellini , in 1876. Nämlich: mines in Tuscany , in Monte Valerio, opposite the island of Elba, called Cento Camerelle, long known für ihre enorme Tiefe u. vast extent; are proved by the implements u. scarabaei found in them u. the surrounding refuse-heaps to have been worked by the Etruskans. In einer der galleries fand hier M. Blanchard tin-stone , which had evidently been the principal metal sought for by the miners; tin-stone occurs auch in geringen Quantities in der Insel Elba.

Monte-Valerio nicht weit entfernt von den Kupferminen von Montieri ⦗Lat. Mons aeris = Bronze-hill⦘, a name which stamps the locality wo Kupfer u. Zinn mingled together by the smelter. Die Kupferwerke wurden bearbeitet mit bronze picks u. wedges u. in den refuse-heaps vast Mengen v. pottery found mit some coins, unter denen is one of Populonia (Pupluna) mit the head of Vulcan and on the reverse the emblems des metalworker – a hammer and pincers. In diesem District also, close to the centre of the dominion of ancient Etruria, the 2 metals side by side, enabling the Etruskans to become the famous bronze merchants u. metalworkers which they were at the dawn of history in Italy. … Durch die Bronze commerce der Mittelmeerwelt attracted to Tuscany u. gegen etrur. Bronzarticles die Industrieproducte v. Aegypten, Assyrien, Griechenld ausgetauscht. Wahrscheinlich die Minen v. Tuscany die ältesten Tinmines worked in Europe; später Phönicier nach Spain, the Eldorado des Westens; dann nach der fzs. Bretagne u. Cornwallis . [405, 406]

Land of Midian ⦗hier hat Major Burton lately proved the existence of vast heaps of cinders, and other proofs of mining and smelting ⦘; von hier (Numbers XXXI. 22) erhielten die Kinder Israels at the close of life of Moses „the gold, and the silver, the brass ⦗wahrscheinlich Bronze⦘, the tin, and the lead“; von hier konnten also Aegypten u. Assyrien, unabhängig v. Europa, ihr Zinn erhalten. Ebenso, nach von Baer ⦗ Archiv für Anthropologie 1877, I, 9. Matériaux, 1877, p. 138⦘ Zinn, nebst Kupfer u. Blei, auch in Khorassan gefunden. [407]

Die Metallurgy of Bronze. Alles kömmt an auf richtige Proportion der Mischung von Kupfer u. Zinn; 12% Zinn (nach Dr Robinson’s experiments) giebt the greatest amount of hardness to bronze, consisting with toughness, während a larger percentage increases the hardness bis Bronze fast so brittle wie Glas wird. Das Percentage of Tin im Bronze Age – in den Bronze Articles – ist so nah wie möglich dem best for making a compound für cutting purposes, von 10–12%. ⦗Dawkins giebt p. 408, 409 Analysis erst der British, dann der French Bronze articles für Bronze Age bezüglich dieses Percentage der Mischung⦘

Presence in den Bronze Articles des Bronze Age von Blei, Eisen, Zink, Schwefel, Silber u. Nickel in extrem kleinen quantities due ihrem Nicht getrennt worden sein während Schmelzprozess vom Kupfer. In einigen Fällen, wie den socketed celts v. northern France Percentage of lead, in one case = 28.50, während tin reduced to a mere trace, Sache nicht accidental. Lead adds to the toughness des alloy u. may have been used wo supply of tin had run short. In anvils u. cold chisels, wo grosse Härte erfordert, die normal amount of tin was greatly exceeded. Die ältesten bronzes essentially composed aus Kupfer u. Zinn ; später lead added in the coinage (aes, semis, quadrans) der Republik u. in Greek coinage after B.C. 400. „Zinc makes its appearance (Phillips. Journ. Chem. Soc. IV, p. 289) a short time previous to the Christian era, and is continued in all the subsequent coins“, obgleich „occasionally associated with lead u. tin, until it almost entirely disappears in the small brass of the Period of the Thirty Tyrants.“ Bronze also älter als Brass u. die terms aes, χαλκός u. „brass“ in Bible imply Bronze, nicht brass. Der Schild des Achilles , made durch Hephaistos, of copper, tin, gold and silver mingled together in the furnace. The oldest seats of bronze-founding bei den Greeks Delos, Aegina, Corinth. [407–410]

Bronze introduced into Europe from One Centre: folgt aus der uniformity der composition der cutting implements des Bronze age. Die Bronzeinstrumente von ancient Peru u. Mexico wahrscheinlich introduced aus Asien by Mongolian tribes, along with some of the symbols in the Mongolian calender u. other proofs (I u. IV Bancroft ) of their Asiatic origin.

Die variations (local) from the normal alloy would inevitably result from the establishment of bronze-smiths’ shops in various countries, in which broken instruments, weapons u. ornaments made into new articles. Das Nickel in den Bronzes of Western Switzerland nach Von Fellenberg derived from the nickeliferous copper ores von Wallis , which were mixed with tin imported von abroad.

Die Zahlreichen discoveries der letzten 30 Jahre zeigen dass gewisse Artikel – wie der plain wedge-axe, the dagger u. das sword with a flat metal tang for the reception of plates of horn or of wood, wurden gefunden in Italy, France, Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, wie in Aegypten u. a general likeness between the series of implements and weapons in various European countries. Dagegen andre articles wie brooches u. swords mit metal hilts, peculiar to certain districts. Zu schliessen daraus, dass the supply of bronze obtained von irgendeinem Centrum u. dass später articles manufactured mit various local modifications der original models; diese modifications leicht produced, from the readiness womit moulds could be made of soft materials wie clay u. sand. [410–412]

Die Bronzes v. Germany, Scandinavia, Western Europe u. Mittelmeer nicht derived v. den great plains of Russia, extending to the Ural u. dem Caucasus, da die Bronze Instruments in diesen Districts unlike denen des Rests v. Europa u. to a large extent of a later date. ⦗See Worsaae u. Kohn u. Mehlis ⦘ Bleibt Asia Minor. In Worsaae’s opinion introduced by way of the Bosphorus; wurde wahrscheinlich entdeckt in some metalliferous region in Central Asia, von da distributed by way of barter, as well as by the migrations of the people, from such a centre wie z. B. Khorasan. Dann natural, dass Bronze used in South of Europe long before known in North; der grössere Theil des europ. Continents may have been in the Bronze Age, während Aegypten u. Assyrien in Iron Age. [412, 413]

The Earliest Bronzeinstruments in Europe. Am weitesten verbreitet simple wedge-shaped axe u. simple dagger; found in Egypt; in ruins of Hissarlik; in island of Termia; Cyprus u. über ganz Europa bis Schweden. Die wedge-axe found in India ist (Gungeria), Mexico, Peru. Diese 2 forms appear together im early Bronze age v. Scandinavia, Britain, France, also probably die first metal implements finding their way to the Neolithic inhabitants of Europe. The wedge-axe descendant from a prototype of polished stone; der dagger related zum stone dagger, wovon so wonderfully worked examples in Scandinavia u. auch discovered in Egypt. Von Egypt one specimen in Brit. Museum, is mounted in a wooden handle like those of bronze. Swords u. more complicated axes kamen später u. present local peculiarities wonach archaeologists map out Europe in different regions charakterisirt durch different styles. [413]

Development of Bronze industry. Bronze erst introducirt in Europa in shape of simple implements, weapons and ornaments; dann, when smelting became known, ingots of bronze, found in France, Germany, Scandinavia, became current as the bullion of those times, fähig zu use für manufacture u. commerce. Wahrscheinlich entstand so idea of coinage u. das aes rude der Etruskans transformed into aes signatum of a definite shape, weight u. value. Der merchant with his pack was followed by the smelter with his tools u. mit increase of trade set up local centres of manufacture wo die conditions favourable. Im Lauf der Zeit original models concealed by the development of a local style; daneben von Zeit zu Zeit importation von foreign articles, wie Etruskan shields, swords u. golden cups discovered in Scandinavia. Der smelter was succeeded by the tinker u. the worker in repoussé der eindrang in die regions north of the Alps aus der Mediterranean area gegen Ende des Bronze age, if not before, in die Mediterranean area selbst. [413, 414]

Local centres of Bronze Industry in late Bronze Age, darin 3 great regions: 1) the Uralian or Russian in the East, completely apart from the others. 2) the Danubian in Northern u. Middle Europe; hierin die Scandinavian bronze swords, with metal hilts elaborately adorned with spirals u. chevrons, so closely allied in their style to those of the Hungarian province, dass ihre designs wie Metall selbst wahrscheinlich hinkamen aus Ungarn. 3) Group: the Mediterranean in the South of Europe: Greece, Italy, France, Switzerland. Britain belongs to France, aber die British isles arm in works of art belonging to Bronze age.

Jede dieser Divisions represents nur extent of influence of each local centre of industry nachdem Schmelzprocess of Bronze bekannt in grösstem Theil v. Europa. Die peculiar advantages für Scandinavia – Amber; für Ungarn – die Zinnminen v. Dtschld u. Böhmen ; für Frankreich die Zinnminen der Bretagne u. des Central Plateau of France; für Italy – die Zinnminen of Tuscany. [414–416]

Distribution of Gold in Europe: in the older rocks; occurs in North of Scotland, Cornwall, Wales, Wicklow mountains in Ireland, very generally associated with tin in the alluvial gravels. It was used für earrings, pendants, necklaces; for ornamenting suits of armour and shields, u. for making cups in Britain in Bronze u. Iron ages. Number of articles of gold in Ireland due to its former abundance in that island. [416]

The distribution of ambre. ⦗ Hjalmar Stolpe: Sur l’origine et le commerce de l’ambre jaune dans l’antiquité, Congrès Int. Archéol. Préhist. Stockholm ⦘ Was highly priced bei den civilis. Völkern des Mittelmeers und – während Neolithic u. folgenden Ages – in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia u. France für personal ornaments. Im Bronze age in Britain used in pieces sufficiently large to be fashioned into cups, were found f.i. in a tumulus at Hove, bei Brighton.

Königsberg mit dem surrounding district of Samland wichtigste amber-producing region, wo fossil resin occurs in a pine forest below the level of the sea. ⦗letztre had extended in the Meiocene age nördlich bis zu den wooded slopes of Iceland auf einer Seite, u. those of Spitzbergen auf der andern⦘ It is picked up auch along the coast of West Prussia u. Pomerania. Der Emperor Nero , nach Julius Solinus (Edit. Mommsen, p. 110) had 13,000 pounds weight brought to him at one time, u. 1770 wurden 65,760 pounds collected in Prussia. It is also cast up by the sea on the southern u. eastern shores of Scania.

Western Shores of Denmark nächstwichtige Region, namentlich zwischen Gulf v. Nissum u. island Fäno. ⦗Es ist found along the coast bis südlich at Zuyder Zee, u. häufig picked up in small quantities on the eastern shores of Britain.⦘ ⦗λιγγύριον ist a red variety of amber, differing from the yellow ἤλεκτρον⦘

In France in the western shores met with u. im Canton Vallon, im Vivarais, in dem Lower Rhone. Dies last deposit shown by Marichard to have been known in the South of France in the Bronze Age, hence probably: „πλεονάζει τὸ λιγγύριον ⦗von den Ligurern so benamst⦘ παρ’ τοῖς Λίγυσιν (Liguriern) ὅ τινες ἤλεκτρον προσαγορεύουσι“ bei Strabo . Dies clear bright red variety des Amber in Asturias (Spain), Lombardy u. the district round Bologna; Catania (Sicily) u. several other sicilian localities. Nach Franks (Congr. Int. Archéolog. Préh. Buda Pesth 1876) the dark red variety found in Greek u. Etruskan tombs at Cumae, Bari, Nola, Palestrina probably derived v. Sicily. Unter andern European localities revealed by modern engineering considerable abundance of amber in many of the low plains of Germany u. Wallachia. A dark red variety in a deposit in the district of Lebanon.

The golden (yellow) variety musste zuerst attraction auf sich ziehen. Samland u. Denmark daher 2 most important sources of supply für die ancients; v. ihnen erhielten Greece u. Rome: grössten Theil ihres amber.

Amber employed for ornament in Neolithic age in Scandinavia, France, Britain. Im Bronze age aber selten used in Scandinavia u. on the shores of the Baltic. Nach Stolpe in diesen regions dessen use nicht general vor a.d. 700; dies von wegen seiner abundance in those districts. (Verte)

Tacitus sagt v. seinen Tagen dass die natives es nicht valued: „Diu inter caetera ejecta maris jacebat, donec luxuria nostra dedit nomen. Ipsis in nullo uso: rude legitur, informe perpetua, pretiumque mirantes accipiunt.“ (Germania CXLV) [417–420]

Duration of Bronze Age North of the Alps. In Italy Bronze Age nicht so klar marked off von Iron age als in Region north of the Alps u. the designs clearly traceable to the Iron Age of the South occur in Germany in late Bronze age. Während es dann in Germany superseded, it held still its ground on the shores of the Baltic; verschwindet in Scandinavia erst in Christian era u. die characteristic short swords u. round targets der tribes zwischen Insel Rügen u. Weichsel beweisen dass hier seine traces mindestens bis 1st century after Ch. ⦗„Rugii atque Lemovii; omniumque harum gentium insigne, rotunda scuta, breves gladii atque erga reges obsequium.“ Germania CXLIII⦘

Mehr as 150 years a. Ch. verschwand Bronze aus Britain u. wahrscheinlich viel früher aus France. [420, 421]

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1. Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben. ↩