Heft XI (1880–1881): Exzerpte aus W. Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain. I (Tertiärzeit, Paläolithikum, Neolithikum)

Nach der Handschrift, MEGAdigital (MEGA² IV/27).¹ Traducción al español

W. Boyd Dawkins: Early Man in Britain, London 1880.

»Affen jetzt nicht in the habit of making stone implements or of cutting bones, although they use stones for cracking nuts«, aber »it does not follow that the extinct apes« ⦗z. B. der Meiocene period, wie Professor Gaudry (»Les enchainements du Monde animal« p. 241) behauptet von den chipped flints and the cut rib, die ersteren gefunden durch Abbé Bourgeois in the mid Meiocene strata zu Thenay u. die letztere (a notched fragment of a rib of an extinct kind of manatee (Halitherium)) found at Pouancé by M. Delaunay – they might have been the work of the Dryopithecus , or the great anthropoid ape, then living in France⦘ »were equally ignorant, because some extinct animals are known to have been more highly organised than any of the living members of their class. The Secondary reptiles possessed attributes not shared by their degenerate Tertiary successors. The Deinosaurs u. Theriodonts had structural peculiarities now only met with in the birds and the mammalia.« (p. [67–]69) W. Boyd Dawkins: Early Man in Britain. London 1880.

»It seems very likely that horns ⦗für ox⦘ were originally a mere sexual character peculiar to the males, and transferred ultimately, like other sexual characters, to the females. This was brought about before the beginning of the Pleistocene age, since all oxen of that era possessed horns.« (87) Daher so leicht in kurzer Zeit »the horns have been bred out of some of the domestic cattle, by selection carried on through a few generations, and our polled cattle may be looked upon as a reversion to an ancestral type«. (l. c.) In the lower Meiocenes I have failed to meet with evidence that the deer possessed any antlers. (89)

The disappearance of the apes from Europe at the close of the pleiocene age is one of the most important facts to be recorded in the history of the mammalia. (90)

The family of lemurs made its appearance both in Europe and America in the Eocene; the apes, or Simiadae, in the Meiocene. (90)

Pottery was unknown in Europe in the Pleistocene. (92) 21 fossil mammalia have been recently proved by Dr. Forsyth Major to have inhabited Tuscany in the Pleiocene age: of these there is only one species, the hippopotamus, now alive on the earth. … the arrival of one solitary living species marks the dawn of that order of nature to which man belongs. (92, 93)

In the Pleistocene period … new mammals appear belonging for the most part to living species … their remains are associated with human implements … show that man was a member of the Pleistocene fauna. (94) Die Pleistocene mammalia found in the deposits of rivers and in ossiferous caverns. (l. c.) Von den Pleiocene species gehören alle ausser 2 den extinct an; von der Pleistocene – 77 species – 22 extinct, 55 living. (95) Von den 8 survivals der Pleiocene period während der Pleistocene – nur eine lebende: Hippopotamus amphibius ⦗african hippopotamus⦘. In der Pleistocene era – von den 55 living species leben jetzt 33 in der gemässigten Zone; u. endlich the man of the river deposits, or the River-drift man. ([95,] 98, 99)

Arctic species – living in der Pleistocene era 8. (l. c.) Dazu (zu den arctic species) auch zu rechnen the Cave-man, jetzt represented by Eskimos, differed from the Palaeolithic man of the river deposits probably in race, and certainly in culture. (100)

Ausserdem newcomers in Pleistocene era u. now living in the cold climate of the mountains not far removed from the snow line, i. e. Snowy vole, Alpine marmot, Chamois, Ibex. (4) [100, 101] Ferner 8 still living species now found in hot climates. (p. 102, 103[, 104]) When man omitted, the groups of animals in the Pleistocene era thus:

There are none (caverns) older than the mid Pleistocene times. (143) ⦗»although caverns must have existed in all ages of the earth’s history«⦘ (143)

Aus mid Pleistocene age v. palaeolithic implements found: simple flake; [163] dagegen:

in the late pleistocene river-beds: the flake; the chopper (Hackmesser) or pebble roughly chipped to an edge on one side; the hâche (Axt, Beil), or oval pointed implement intended for use without a handle; an oval or rounded form with a cutting edge all round, which may have been used in handle; a scraper for preparing skins; endlich pointed flints used for boring; savages like the native Australians; living by hunting; he fashioned the stones happening to be within his reach, – flint, quartzite or chert – in the shallows of the rivers, as they were wanted, throwing them away after they had been used. Daher the large numbers met with in certain spots, wie zu Brandon u. Thetford in Suffolk ; a nomad hunter, ignorant of the art of grinding his stone tools to a sharp edge. (163)

Selber casus in Frankreich, shown by the researches of Boucher de Perthes u. Rigollot in the fluviatile strata of the valley of the Somme at Amiens u. Abbeville. (p. 163, 64) Discoveries der letzten 20 J. ähnlicher implements as far south as the deposits of the Garonne near Toulouse; man folgte den animals in their migrations; he must have found game in great abundance in the well-watered lowlands and round the numerous lakes, now covered by the North Sea and the English and Irish Channels. (164) Some traces of this hunter’s present, durch implements found in the gravels of Manzanares (near Madrid) (wedge-shaped instrument von »Madras« form), ovate instrument zu Gabbiano (Abruzzo) ; similar instruments near Megalopolis (Peloponnes) from beds of sand, with bones of the great pachyderms. (l. c.) Ditto traces of Riverdriftmen in Africa, Palestina u. Indien mit entsprechenden implements. (p. 165)

[Ch. VII. The Cave-man and the Advance in Culture]

⦗Vom selben Dawkins: „Cave-Hunting. 1875 ⦘ [175]

Die eigentlichen cavemen später u. höher entwickelt als die River-Drift men. Bei beiden No Pottery. No domestic animals. “ Implement making u. Sewing bei Cavemen. [199–210] The occupations which centred then, as now, round the hearth, were for men the manufacture of articles for the chase, and for the women the preparation of food and clothing. Flint and chert pebbles were collected and fashioned into various articles near the fires: into spearheads, arrow-heads, flakes, borers, and saws for cutting antlers and bones; – into needles, and harpoons. The skins of the wild animals were prepared for clothing and other purposes, and sewn together with a thread of reindeer sinews; wahrscheinlich dress duty der women. Some of the outlines incised on the antlers in the caves of Auvergne represent the skin stretched out after it had been removed from the body of the animal, the incision being made, as at the present time, from the lower jaw to the tail, and the legs and tail being preserved. The fashioning of wooden handles for the implements with their imperfectly edged tools must have occupied a large portion of the time of the men in the intervals of hunting. (210, 11) The hunters were armed with spears tipped with flint and bone, with daggers of reindeer antler, some bearing beautifully carved handles. Sie leben meist auf reindeer, horses, ursus etc, aber, wenn opportunity, attacked also animals living in the sea, seals, whales, walruses. [212–218] Dress and ornaments: painted probably their faces with red oxide of iron, lumps of which found in the English, French and Swiss caves. Their clothes made of the furs of reindeers, bisons, horses etc sewn together with sinews like those of the Eskimos; their arms and hands protected by long gloves with 3 or 4 fingers. Wore amulets u. necklaces made of perforated shells (fossil and recent), of bone, ivory u. teeth. [211, 212] Fowling (Vogeljagd). [218, 219] Fishing. [219, 220] Engraving (upon bone, antler, and more rarely upon ivory and stone ) the hunting scenes, resp. animals, which most vividly impressed themselves upon their memory u. zwar diese faculty of representing animals wonderfully developed . [220] ⦗weit mehr als bei ihren neolithic successors⦘ Ebenso sculpture in Verfertigung von handle of dagger (cave of Laugerie Basse) of reindeer antler etc. [223]

The ivory used in the sculptures and engravings derived from the tusks of the mammoth, and the sharpness of the outlines implies that it was used when fresh. Bedenkt man the rudeness of their materials, so die accuracy ⦗u. grace u. liveliness⦘ womit sie represented the figures more prominently before them in their daily life most extraordinary; unter uncivilised peoples nowadays nur zu vergleichen with the artistic representations der Eskimos. [223, 224] A human tooth, found in the cave of Plas Newydd ist only piece of human frame of late Pleistocene age found in Great Britain; dagegen: Human remains in the Cave of Duruthy ⦗situated on a rocky promontory of nummulitic limestone near Sorde, Western Pyrénées, overlooking the junction of the gave d’Oleron and gave de Pau, 2 tributaries of the Adour, and is hollowed in the nummulitic limestone⦘, explored 1874 by L. Lartet u. Chaplain-Duparc . Nur in dem upper part des untersten layer of red earth with flintflakes u. fragments of charcoal ist a skull of Palaeolithic age; dabei necklace; dann folgt dicke accumulation of refuse, of broken bones of horses, oxen, stag and reindeer, large quantities of ashes, and various flint implements of the Palaeolithic types; darüber a thick talus, etc. Unter large Steinen, fallen from the cliff verborgen a sepulchral vault, contained numerous skulls and skeletons; deren Neolithic age bewiesen durch type der implements, vor allem auch rude fragments of pottery ⦗das necklace bei dem palaeolithischen Kopf (ohne skeleton) beweist dass die cavemen in habit of killing lions u. bears, the teeth mostly adorned with most interesting engravings⦘. [226–228]

No interments proved to be of Palaeolithic age.

The river-drift implements in the caves of Cresswell Crags, of Kent’s Hole, and of the Grotte de l’Eglise are found in the strata below those with the implements of the Cavemen, also lebten River-drift men in France u. Britain vor den Cavemen ⦗u. zwar, wie nachgewiesen, ungemessne ages zuvor; sind jetzt auch extinct⦘ Obgleich sie einzelne einfache forms v. implements gemein haben – wie the flake, scraper u. hammerstone – die implements der cavemen viel höher stehend u. im Ganzen verschiedner Art. The river-drift men wandered als hunters über ganz Europa südlich v. Norfolk, liessen traces in Spanien, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, ganz Indien; the cavemen are restricted to the area extending from the Alps and Pyrénées as far north as Derbyshire u. Belgium u. have not yet been found farther east than Poland u. Styria … the River-drift men belong to the southern group of Mammalia, while the Cavemen to the northern, wie reindeer, musksheep etc. Die discoveries der letzten 20 Jahre seem to confirm the identification der cavemen mit den Eskimos. [230–233]

Im pleistocene age no trace of pottery or spinning, of domestic animals or cultivated seeds or fruits. Wandering feral life. [244]

[Ch. VIII] Neolithic Civilisation: Prehistoric farmer, and herdsmen.

Prehistoric period, alles zwischen Pleistocene age u. the beginning of history; to it belong most of the alluvia and the peat-bogs; u. die contents gewisser caverns characterised by the presence of the wild mammalia now living in Europe etc. Nur eins von allen damals lebenden mammals extinct, the Irish elk. Dies neolithic age – or that of polished stones, with the stocks of the more important domestic animals, and many of the cultivated seeds u. fruits. [247]

Die submerged forests dieser Periode (neolithic) angehörig, weil present animals originally domestic, and introduced by the Neolithic tribes, the Celtic shorthorn and the sheep or goat u. die absence der Pleistocene mammalia. (254, 55) Dies Land – wozu dieser forestgrowth belongs – nicht zu confound with the older surface, nearly at the same horizon, and containing the remains of the mammoth, wie at St. Audries, near Watchet, in Holyhead Harbour, and off the coast of Yarmouth; Noch weniger mit dem noch älteren Land surface under the boulder clay of Norfolk and Suffolk, wo discovered the southern Elephant etc; the southern elephant lived in Europe vor dem Mammuth u. das Mammuth extinct vor der introduction of domestic animals. [255]

» The forests and morasses would probably cause the Prehistoric climate to be more damp than that experienced in Britain since the dawn of history; while the larger area of land would produce a greater contrast between the temperature of summer and winter.«

Nach James Geikie : „no island of the Orkney or Shetland groups can boast the presence of any natural trees deserving of the name. … And yet the mosses and sunk forests of those regions abound with fallen trees, many of which equal in thickness to the body of a man.“ Zur Lebenszeit dieser „buried trees“ – the land stood at a higher level, and the neighbouring ocean at a greater distance. Ebenso mit den „Inner and outer Hebrides“ u. „all the maritime regions of Scotland“. (255, 56) Dasselbe folgt aus den „facts disclosed by the mosses of Ireland and England. On the coasts of France and Holland – peat dips deep under the sea; and along those bleak maritime regions of Norway, wo jezt kaum a pine-tree grows, we find peat mosses mit remains of fullgrown trees, nur met with in districts much farther removed von influence der See.“

Aus der great thickness des bark der Scotch firs in the buried forests schliesst Geikie auf viel kälteres Clima als jezt, more like that of the wooded regions of Canada als deren des jetzigen Deutschlands, etc. (256, 57)

»Die mammalia die Great Britain u. Ireland bewohnten in der Prehistoric Period 3erlei: 1) wild species surviving from the Pleistocene age; 2) species introduced under the care of man; 3) domestic animals reverted to a wild state.« (257)

Domestic Animals of the Prehistoric Period: dog, Horse, Sheep, Goat, Shorthorn, Hog.

Wild animals: Man; Beaver; Hare; Alpine Hare; Rabbit; Water Rat; Wild Cat; Otter; Marten; Badger; Brown Bear; Grisly Bear; Wolf; Fox; Horse, Roe; Stag; Elk; Irish elk; Reindeer; Urus; Wild Boar. [261, 262]

Neolithic: Hut Circles. The contents of these pits ⦗at Fisherton, near Salisbury f.i.⦘ or „hut circles“ ⦗ancient habitations dating as far back in this country as the Neolithic age, and in use, as proved by the discoveries at Standlake u. at Brent Knoll, near Burnham, as late as the time of the Roman occupation⦘ u. a. Spindle-Whorl of burnt clay ⦗also Spinning⦘, two dressed lumps of chalk with holes drilled in them … weights … used to give tension to the warp threads in weaving, like those found in the Swiss pile-dwellings. Two curious combs, 6 inches long, with short thick teeth and long handles were used in weaving; a bone needle with drilled eye implies sewing. Fragments of pottery, not turned in the lathe, plain, or ornamented with incised curves, right lines, or lines of dots – potter’s art; were also cultivators of the ground, … a cast of a grain of wheat found in the clay which had formed a portion of the cover of one of these pits; 2 concave stone grain-rubbers or „mealing stones“ for grinding corn; the remains of the animals in the pits belong to wild and domestic species; this form of subterranean habitations is still used by native tribes in the Interior of Africa . [266–268]

Log Houses in Ireland. Model preserved (in Museum of the Royal Irish academy) of a log hut, discovered 1833 in Drumkelin bog, Inver, Donegal; in diesem Haus gefunden a »stone celt« (Achse) ; im ground floor, ausser der stone axe – a grindstone (hollowed in the centre by rubbing) u. … remains of fireplace (wozu led a paved causeway) composed of slabs of freestone, at 14 yards’ distance from the house etc. Dies house u. the surrounding woodland growth of bog-willow, ash, and oak, lay buried under a depth of 14 feet below the surface of the bog. It is the only example of a »wooden« cabin of the Neolithic age which is on record … is a type of one of the forms of habitations wo timber was abundant, and where stone was not at hand for building circular or beehive huts like the Scotch burghs. The neolithic inhabitants of Britain also used Caves for habitation, such as those of North Wales etc. (269–271)

Polished Stone, Bronze and Iron od. Neolithic, Bronze, Iron. ⦗Polishing of Stone distinguishes at the outside, the first or neolithic phase of the Prehistoric period from the palaeolithic. [247, 248]

»At the close of the pleistocene age, the valleys which united Britain to North France, Germany and Scandinavia as well as to Ireland, were gradually depressed beneath the sealevel; and the North Sea and Brit. Channel, the Irish Sea and the Western Atlantic coastline generally became very much as we find them now. An examination of the submerged forests and peatbogs proves that the downward movement had not ceased until a late period in the Neolithic age.« (p. 248)

»The sharp line of demarcation between the two ⦗the Pleistocene period and the Prehistoric with its three phases neolithic, bronze, iron⦘ is to be noticed in almost every river valley, where both are close together; the Pleistocene fluviatile strata occurring in various levels, either above or below the present level of the stream, while the Prehistoric deposits consist of alluvia close to the present level of the stream, or of subaërial accumulations of loam and the like, the result of the rain-wash, covering the lower grounds like a mantle. … A line of demarcation is equally clear in the caverns wo die Pleistocene accumulations are generally mapped off from those of the Prehistoric age by a layer of stalagmite, sometimes of considerable thickness.« (263, 64)

»Die homesteads (neolithic) lagen in clusters in the forests – eh wir zu ihnen kommen herds of goats and flocks of horned sheep, … troop of horses or small short-horned oxen … od. swineherd tending the hogs in their search after roots … large dogs ⦗die im Nothfall auch gegessen werden⦘, used as guardians of the flocks against bears, wolves or foxes and for hunting the wild animals. At last, on emerging into the clearing – a little plot of flax or small- eared wheat, and near the homestead the inhabitants, clad some in linen and others in skins, and ornamented with necklaces and pendants of stone, bone, or pottery … some cutting wood with stone axes with a wonderfully sharp edge, fixed in wooden handles … with stone adzes and gouges (Hohleisen, Hohlmeissel), or with little saws composed of carefully notched pieces of flint about 3 or 4 inches long, splitting it with stone wedges, scraping it with flint flakes; some … preparing handles for the spears, shafts for the arrows and wood for the bows, or for the broad paddles used for propelling the canoes. Others are busy grinding and sharpening the various stone tools, scraping skins with implements ground to a circular edge, or carving various instruments out of bone and antler with sharp splinters of flint, while the women are preparing the meal with pestles and mortars and grain rubbers, and cooking it on the fire, generally outside the house, or spinning thread with spindle and distaff, or weaving it with a rude loom … moulding of rude cups and vessels out of clay carefully prepared.« (272, 73) The Neolithic farmers used for food the produce of their flocks and herds, eating all their domestic animals, incl. of horse and dogs … abundance of game out of the forest … was an occasional supply, nicht main subsistence. Roe, stag, wahrscheinlich auch elk u. reindeer, in Irld der sonst damals schon extinct Irish elk … auch urus (large wild ox) still living, also ate hares, wild boars u. beavers. (273, 74)

Der Typus u. wichtigstes neolithisches Instrument – the Axe ⦗damit Bäume gefällt zum clearing des ground, durch its sharp edge wood became useful for manufacture of various articles and implements⦘ unmessbar superior to the rude flint hâche des Palaeolithic hunter, which could not make a straight cut in wood u. generally intended for use in the hand, without any handle. [274]

Spinning u. manufacture of linen introduced in Europe in the Neolithic age. Im neolithic household the spindle and the distaff always to be found, u. die circular perforated spindle-whorls (= whirls, Wirbel) , made sometimes of stone, manchmal of bone or pottery, very commonly met with in the Neolithic habitations u. tombs. The thread ⦗as proved durch die discoveries in the Swiss lakes⦘ composed of flax u. the combs – used for pushing the threads of the warp (Kette) on to the weft (Einschlag), show that it was woven into linen on some kind of loom. Dies wahrscheinlich Weiberarbeit, wie universal practice bei classical peoples des Mittelmeers u. unter den rude tribes of Africa, Asia, America. [275]

Pottery: the vessels are coarsely made by hand, meist of clay worin small pieces of stone, or fragments of shell, have been worked; brown or black in colour, meist mit rounded bottoms, also nicht intended to stand on tables, sondern to be placed in hollows on the ground or floor; manchmal ornamented with patterns in right lines or in dots. [275, 276]

Neolithic flint mines in Brandon (Suffolk): Die stone implements der Palaeolithic men fashioned out of pebbles and boulders torn from the rocks by the elements; die stones used by the Neolithic men for their implements were carefully sought beneath the ground. Series of workings at Grimes Graves, near Brandon (Suffolk), explored by Reverend W. Greenwell , besteht aus shafts connected together by galleries from 3 to 5 feet high, made in pursuit of a layer of flint good for manufacture. War der flint within reach exhausted, a new shaft sunk close by, and a new set of galleries made; denn die miners seem to have been ignorant of the use of timber to keep up the roof, and were therefore unable to work very far from the bottom of the shaft. ⦗The partially filled up shafts appear at the surface as circular depressions in selber Form wie die hut circles.⦘ ⦗Diese mode of mining employed in Britain as late, if not later than the time of James II , in obtaining the iron ore, which made the iron trade of Kent and Sussex of such importance down to the end of the 17t century. The large woods in the neighbourhood of Hastings, in the direction of Battle, Brede and Ashburnham, mark to a great extent the broken ground caused by these excavations and render them worthless for the farmer.⦘

In the old workings the miners have left behind their tools – picks made out of stags’ antlers, polished stone celts, which fitted to the marks in the galleries, chisels of bone and antler, and little cups made of chalk evidently intended to contain grease for the supply of light. In einem der pits large accumulation of the bones of animals for the most part broken for the sake of their marrow, of the Celtic shorthorn, the sheep or goat, the horse, the pig, and the dog. Die bones der shorthorns belonged fast ausnahmslos to young calves, die des dog to aged animals, eaten by their masters after having become too old for hunting. [276–278]

The flint implement Manufactory at Cissbury: on a large scale shafts and galleries at Cissbury, – a Camp on a commanding position of the South Downs, about 3 miles from Worthing, explored by General Lane Fox ⦗„Hill Forts of Sussex.“ Archaeologia XLII⦘ etc. The surface des ground in and around the circular depressions covered by innumerable implements in every stage of manufacture, from the nodule of flint, fresh out of the chalk, spoilt by an unlucky blow, to the article nearly finished and accidentally broken. ⦗The Romans used the camp at Cissbury for military purposes.⦘ Unter den 1000nds of implements found at Cissbury nur 3 bear traces of polishing u. diese are broken; wahrscheinlich passirten sie also hier nur durch ihr first state of manufactory u. wurden polished by the people who used them elsewhere, at home on one of those grindstones generally found in Neolithic villages, wie im log house zu Donegal. [278–280]

Commerce: Die implements – dies folgt from the existence of centres of mining and manufacture – über weite districts vertheilt, probably by being passed from hand to hand u. from tribe to tribe , wie copper kettles u. other articles, coming from the Russians in Kamtschatka, find their way eastward among the Eskimos of West Georgia u. ebenso penetrate in this way European articles into the heart of Africa. Dass diese Sorte traffick extended over enormous distances in the Neolithic age proved by the distribution der axes made of nephrite od. jade. (Jade, Nephrit, Beilstein, Bitterstein) Dieser existirt in der alten Welt nur in Turkestan u. China, wo seit undenklicher Zeit er den Tartaren u. Chinesen supplies liefert; wurde in der neolithischen Zeit wahrscheinlich transported durch Asien, by the steady westerly drifting der tribes; passing from hand to hand, and in the course of many ages arriving in Britain. Sein Werth in its rarity, hardness u. beautiful green colour, superstitious virtues attached to it in all ages and among all peoples; unter Chinesen u. Neuseeländern heutiger Zeit wie bei den ancient inhabitants of Europe. In den Neolithic times die Aexte draus gemacht nicht for common use, sondern suspended as charms and ornaments; dies auch case in Bronze age. [280, 281] – Traffic was carried on by barter. [290]

Navigation: the intercourse der neolithic tribes greatly facilitated durch canoes, formed of the trunk of trees, hollowed partly durch fire, partly durch axes, u. propelled by means of a broad paddle; einige davon 40 feet long; in diesen canoes wahrscheinlich crossed the Neolithic peoples mit cattle u. household stuff über nach Britain (von den nächsten Gestaden des Continents) u. von da nach Irland. [281, 282]

Warfare u. Camps: the numerous heads of javelins, arrows u. spears zeigen dass die neolithic inhabitants Britain’s u. Irlands beständig Krieg mit einander führten, wie alle lowly civilised tribes ausser den Eskimos. Club und Axt used in hand to hand fight. For purpose of defence camps constructed with well-engineered ramparts of stone or earth, and fosses, manchmal 3 or 4 ramparts über einander. Von diesen ramparts slung stones and arrows ; sehr zahlreich diese camps, z. B. that of Mount Badon bei Bath, Old Sarum bei Salisbury u. Caer Caradoc bei Church Stretton. They cluster more thickly on the spots which command the fertile valleys, as f.i. the sides of the Severn and the Dee, and on the Chalk Downs overlooking the rich „bottoms“ of the southern counties. General Lane Fox says: Jede „group of hills“ in den South Downs hatte a stronghold of its own intended „to contain the inhabitants of the surrounding district, who dwelt in the valleys beneath, where food and water were obtainable, and where traces of their cultivation still exist, and who, like the savages of Africa etc resorted to their strongholds in times of danger, each man carrying with him fuel, water and provisions hinreichend to sustain him till the foe retired.“ [282, 283]

Britain occupied by tribal communities, wie bei Afghans, Kaffirs u. den villages die Stanley found in his voyage down the Congo … there must have been social differences resulting from the possession of property, bes. in the shape of flocks u. herds; u. die variation in size u. contents der burial places shows that it was unequally distributed. [283]

Burial of Dead. Die neolithic tribes in Britain buried their dead manchmal in caves previously used by them for dwellings, manchmal in chambered tombs, which probably represent the huts of the living; jede davon generally used as a vault common to the family or tribe, contained skeletons of all ages; the interments successive etc. Nach Aristoteles war the Iberian people gewohnt of placing as many obelisks round the tomb of the dead warrior as he had slain enemies u. a structure of this sort remarked in Britain; so in some of the »long barrows« of Wiltshire, Somerset u. Gloucestershire … a boundary wall of rubble stone from 2 to 3 feet high, with large upright blocks of stone placed at intervals, forming a peristyle like those surrounding the topes of India. Manchmal the boundary wall very complicated wie zu Uley in Gloucestershire. The dead buried in these tombs as they died in a contracted or crouching posture … wahrscheinlich due to their sleeping in that position, nicht wie wir at full length on a bed. Dr Thurnam ( Archaeologia ) glaubt dass from the many cases in which he has found cleft skulls, that human sacrifices were offered, wie bei den Gauls ( Caesar , VI, 19 u. Mela III. 2); auch domestic animals slaughtered u. eaten mit den wild animals – boar, roe, stag – in honour of the dead. [284–287]

Belief in a Future State: Implements of various kinds, flakes, arrow heads, scrapers, celts and pottery generally found in the tombs, wohl für den use der dead; the tomb, to the Neolithic mind, as truly the habitation of the spirits of the dead as the hut was that of the living. Hence the offerings made to them u. die damit zusammenhängenden superstitions bis in die historische Periode hinein. Some of the tombs of imposing grandeur … spirits worshipped by the family or tribe wie bei Red Indians u. many African peoples. [287–290]

Neolithic Civilisation on the Continent: Traces davon entdeckt fast in ganz Europa. 1829 ⦗see Keller »Lake Dwellings« ⦘ excavation for deepening the harbour of Ober Meilen, on the lake of Zurich, revealed Pfahlbauten, erweckten damals so little interest wie die gleichzeitigen discoveries in Kent’s Hole durch Mr MacEnery ; ihre Wichtigkeit erkannt 1854; seit der Zeit discoveries carried on in vielen lakes v. Schweiz, Italien, Oestreich, bewiesen, dass zahlreiche population dwelt in houses built on platforms, at a short distance from the shore, in the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages; in der Schweiz bis 1st century after Chr. ⦗a coin of Claudius found with other coins in the pile-dwelling of Marin.⦘ In meisten cases die habitations burnt u. die platforms m. den Rests der Hütten u. household stuff dropped down to the bottom of the lake, bildeten mit den various articles, lost from time to time, a relic bed; manchmal dies repeated, each (successive) conflagration being marked by its layer of ashes and charred piles.

The artificial platforms for the huts built on piles interlaced with timbers, manchmal on bundles of brushwood, or fascines, occasionally weighted with clay or stone –; die platforms connected with the land by a cause-way; intended for defence; als im Bronze age die Angriffsmittel verbessert wurden, the settlements were built at a greater distance from the margin, so as to be farther away from the reach of the slingstone and of the arrow. Aehnliche habitations described by Major Burton in Dahomey , durch captain Cameron: »Across Africa« im Lake Mohrya , as the homes of certain African tribes. They were used in Asia Minor im Apamaean lake (Hitzig: Supplementa Tubulae Syriae. c. II) as late as the middle of the 14th century by the „Christian fishermen who live here on the lake in wooden huts built on piles“. Nach Herodot (16) the pile dwellings on Lake Prasias gewährten ihren inhabitants sichern Schutz gegen die Waffen der Perser unter Megabazus, im Marsch nach Hellespont u. dem conquest of Thrace.

Das pile-dwelling of Robenhausen, which lies buried in a peat-bog on the South side of Lake Pfäffikon diene als Beispiel einer dieser communities im Neolithic age in Switzerland. … In remains of 6 of these huts, exposed in digging a canal, were at 6 different points at equal distances little heaps of corn, pieces of woven u. plaited cloth, stores of raw flax together with a mealing stone u. also 6 groups of stones which had formed the hearths. Scheint daher, dass jede hut bewohnt by a family who had its own arrangements for preparing victuals u. making clothes u. dass the whole settlement nicht a community with a common store house like a Mexican pueblo. In einem Platz gefunden considerable quantity of ears of wheat and barley along with bread; in einem andern corn and bread with burnt apples u. pears; in drittem flax in hanks or skeins, spun u. plaited into cords, nets u. mats u. woven into cloth, along with earthenware weights for the loom; the corn was reduced to meal in mortars or on mealing stones … caraway (Kümmel) u. poppy seeds used, wahrscheinlich für flavouring, a small round cake of poppy found; ebenso stores of water-chestnut, common nut, walnut, and apples wovon 300 found together, beech nuts and acorns (vielleicht für swine); raspberry, strawberry, elderberry, blackberry, cherry, sloe. Fragments of pottery abundant, ebenso various instruments of stone, antler, and bone (derselben Art wie die in Britain u. Irland), sometimes with the handles of wood, perfectly preserved. Fragments of leather, also auch mit tanning acquainted; a wooden last (Leisten), also making shoes or sandals for measure ; auch wooden bows, bowls, andre Artikel; the asphalt of the Val de Travers (now so commonly employed for pavements) was used for cementing the stone implements into their handles, u. die fires lighted by means of a flint flake and a piece of iron pyrites, wie „the flint and steel“ of the present time.

The large quantities of bones thrown away into the refuse-heap at the bottom of the lake show that the villagers lived on the wild animals of the district u. on their flocks u. herds, and the produce of their fields and gardens; ate large quantities of fish; die domestic animals – ausser dem large oxen – of the same breeds as those kept in Neolithic Britain u. von diesen wenigstens 3 – swine, sheep, cows – kept in pens close to the huts of their owners. Their excrements (dieser Thiere) form a layer v. 2–10 inches thick, mixed with litter. [290–294]

Von den domestic animals dieses Neolithic age in Switzerland:

Dog: gleich entfernt v. Wolf u. Jackal, intermediate in size zwischen hound u. spaniel ; nicht descended vom europ. Wolf; its nearest native ally, in the wild state, der Jackal, inhabitant der warm regions of South Eastern Europe u. Süd u. Central Asien, wahrscheinlich the breed of dogs originated under the care of man in one of those countries. [295]

Hog: in den pile-dwellings found 2 breeds: turf-hog (sus palustris) (Torfschwein of Rütimeyer) u. the common domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus); diese 2 represent the extremes woher our present domestic hogs derived. Die aboriginal wildness of the turf hog nicht zu schliessen aus dessen wide distribution through Europe, denn at present the swine introduced in Nord u. Süd America u. Australia durch die colonists, are gradually spreading over those countries; ebenso kann es in Europa »verwildert« sein. Die enormous abundance of its remains in den Neolithic Pfahlbauten, coupled mit den pig-sties, and stores of acorns and beechnuts found at Robenhausen, wo kein ander breed of swine discovered, zeigen dass it was introduced in Europe as a domestic animal; small size of its tusks, verglichen mit wild boar, most probably result of long domestication bevor its arrival in Europe. – Der common domestic hog kann originally in Europa gezähmt worden sein, da wild boar a member of the European fauna in Pleistocene and Prehistoric times; aber wild boar auch found in Asia; daher wahrscheinlich dass er dort gezähmt wie dog u. turf hog. [295–297]

The Domestic oxen, sheep, and goats: 2 od. 3 races of oxen found in den pile dwellings; davon the small, delicately shaped Celtic short horn war bis zur English conquest in Britain the sole domestic ox; wird gefunden in den turbaries v. Britain, Ireland, Continent zus. mit remains von stag u. roe u. dergleichen animals; beweist nichts bezüglich its aboriginal condition; denn the cattle introduced in America u. Australia sind dort auch verwildert u. are now spreading with a remarkable rapidity über Australien. Sein nächstes living analogon in wild state gegenwärtig some of the smaller oxen of Southern Asia, aber noch nicht mit Sicherheit traced to any one breed of wild cattle.

2te Race of cattle: Bos frontosus is allied to the Celtic shorthorn, nach Rütimeyer to the urus; may be the result of a cross between the two. ⦗What careful selection will effect in modifying the cranial characters to be gathered from the fact that the polled Galloway cattle have lost their horns and acquired a frontal protuberance in 80 Jahren.⦘ Von wegen des small development of the horncores, the frontosus wahrscheinlich näher allied to the Celtic short horn als zu urus.

3t Race: Bos taurus – large domestic ox – can derive vom wild urus inhabiting Europe in Pleistocene u. Praehistoric ages bis ins 16t Jhd post Chr; da er aber zuerst »in his domestic state« erscheint zusammen mit nichteurop. Thieren er auch wahrscheinlich gezähmt eingeführt. ⦗Nach Nilsson imported into Scandinavia v. Southern Europe.⦘ Dasselbe gilt für das domestic horse. ⦗ Rütimeyer fügt ass zu den Hausthieren gefunden in den Neolithic pile-dwellings at Wauwyl u. that of Auvernier, of late Bronze age⦘

Sheep of the pile-dwellings horned, of a fine delicate breed, u. die goat possessed keeled horns arching backwards (war wahrscheinlich ancestor der Welsh goat); keins der beiden represented by any wild stock in Europe, both unknown in pleistocene age; also eingeführt from abroad.

Die Ueberbleibsel der meisten dieser Hausthiere found in association mit Neolithic implements nicht nur in Britain u. Schweiz, sondern in Italien, Spain, France, Germany, Scandinavia; also kept by the herdsmen jenes remote age über den grössren Theil des Continents; v. jetzigen »local varieties« ⦗»produced by long-continued selection«⦘ nichts bisher observed in Neolithic Europe. Die domestic animals scheinen in Europa en masse eingeführt worden zu sein, nicht one after another. Dog wahrscheinlich first servant of man (beim Jagen), doch kein direct evidence on this point. [297–299]

»Domestic animals probably derived von Central Plateau of Asia zusammen mit their masters; dort Jackal, wild boar, wild horse, u. in ancient times, the urus. Kein well-authenticated case of the discovery of any of the domestic animals in any part of Europe in any deposits older than the prehistoric age; Gaudry , Rütimeyer , Virchow u. Forsyth Major sagen dass sie have not met with the domestic animals in the undisturbed Pleistocene strata of their respective countries. Remains of domestic animals often found in caverns brought into association with Pleistocene species, either by the hand of man, or by the burrowing of rats, rabbits, badgers, foxes.« (p. 300)

The cultivated seeds and fruits. (Heer: Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten) Nach Heer by the Neolithic inhabitants der Schweizer Pfahlbauten angebaut 8 Arten cereals :

1. small lake-dwelling wheat. (Triticum vulgare antiquorum); 2) Egyptian wheat (T. turgidum); 3) Two-rowed wheat (T. dicoccum) ⦗(κόκκος berry)⦘ 4) One-rowed wheat (T. monococcum); 5) Compact six-rowed barley (Hordeum hexastichum densum) 6) small six-rowed barley (Hordeum sanctum); 7) Common millet (Panicum miliaceum); 8) Italian setaria (Setaria italica).

The small lake-dwelling wheat was the most common, lasted to the Roman conquest of Switzerland, then became extinct. The Egyptian wheat stimmt exact mit keiner existing variety, was rarely grown; the two-rowed kind differs from all known varieties, the one-rowed only known in the Neolithic age by the presence of a single ear. The small six-rowed barley wahrscheinlich die Form wovon descended the common 4-rowed barley; the axes of the ears having become longer by cultivation through many ages, and the spikelets having been pushed farther asunder by the greater development of the grain.

Several of our most familiar fruits and seeds grew in the Neolithic gardens and orchards; all, however, smaller than those now under cultivation, u. nearer to the wild forms from which they descended. ⦗the seeds of the wild plants found in the lake dwellings are absolutely identical with those of the present times, während the seeds of the plants under cultivation have been improved in the many centuries between Neolithic times and ours⦘

1. Peas (pisum sativum) 2) Poppies (Papaver somniferum antiquum) 3) Flax (linum angustifolium); 4) Caraway (Kümmel) seeds (Carum carui) 5) Apples (Pyrus malus); 6) Pears (pyrus communis); 7) Bullace plums (Prunus institia).

The cereals of Mediterranean habit, used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans from the earliest times. Two weeds which grew in the cornfields, the common blue corn-bottle (Centaurea cyanus) u. the Cretan catchfly (Silene cretica) indigenous in Asia Minor, Greece, Italy. The small-leaved flax a native of Southern-Europe. – Also the Pfahlbautenbewohner bebauten vegetables not traceable to wild stocks now growing in Switzerland; kamen v. Südeuropa od. Kleinasien. They show that agriculture first invented in the warmer regions of the South and East u. knowledge davon später introduced in Nord-West- u. Central Europa. [300–302]

The Shell-Mounds of Denmark. ⦗ Steenstrup : Sur les Kjokkenmoddings de l’age de la Pierre. Copenhagen. 1869 . Worsaae : La colonisation de la Russie et du Nord Scandinave, trad. par E. Beauvois 1875. Copenhague⦘

Die durch Prof. Steenstrup u. andre explorirten refuse-heaps of Denmark zeigen Culturstand auf den Küsten des Baltischen Meers sehr unter general level der Schweiz u. Europa’s in neolithic age. Vast accumulations of shells and bones of fishes, birds and animals, close to the seashore mark the sites of ancient encampments, occupied at least 2/3 of the year und nicht mere restingplaces for nomad hunters. Oysters, cockles, mussels u. periwinkles der principal shell-fish eaten; the herring, cod, dorse, eel and flounder the principal fishes. The shell-fish of the usual dimensions (Lyell) to which they arrive in the open sea , not stunted as now in the Baltic; dieser also damals more closely connected mit Ocean u. nicht so brackish wie jetzt. Cod u. Herring are deep-sea fishes; also not likely to have been caught ohne use of coracles or canoes. Unter den birds der refuse-heaps most frequent the great Auk (Alca impennis), now extinct in Europe u. fast becoming exterminated in Greenland; auch wild ducks, geese, wild swans u. capercailzies; die letzteren feed principally on the buds of pines, daher zu schliessen – von its frequent appearance auf dense forests of pine covering the country; die discoveries in the peat bogs show following sequence:

1. Scotch firs: associated with articles of the Neolithic age; 2) Oaks mit articles of Bronze age; 3) Beeches mit articles of Iron age. Die most common animals : stag, roe, wild boar; aber auch Beaver, water rat, urus, lynx, wild cat, wolf, fox, otter, Hedgehog, Dog, bear, seal, Porpoise. Alle wild ausser dog, also man nur noch hunter, fowler, fisherman; die refuse heaps enthalten implements exceedingly rude, aber admirably made flakes; polished stone axes occur u. some of the implements made out of polished stone axes; belong daher zu same age wie die neolithic tumuli (over the dead) abounding in the district. [302–305]

The Neolithic art: tief unter der der Cavemen in the arts of design. Ihr highest artistic achievement is the rude figure of a stone axe in its handle of wood, engraved on the roof of the sepulchral chamber of Dol-ar-Marchnant, near Locmariaker in Bretagne. [305]

Die neolithic peoples schufen die rudiments der jetzigen Cultur – spinning, weaving, pottery making, mining, farming. Die neolithische Civilisation von langer Dauer, jedoch verschiedner in different countries. Sie machte einer höheren Cultur Platz in Greece u. Italy lang bevor sie aus Nord- u. Central-Europa verschwand. Glass beads brought from the Mediterranean, and probably of Phoenician workship, occur in the Neolithic tombs of France, u. in den Pfahlbauten der Schweiz. Während sich Neolithic phase behauptete in Frankreich, Germany, Britain, Scandinavia, waren Aegypten u. Assyrien schon highly organised empires, u. die Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the path of civilisation. [307, 308]

Die neolithischen tribes kamen – vom Plateau v. Centralasien – wahrscheinlich auf denselben two routes pursued by the subsequent migrations – the one über Kleinasien u. Griechenland u. über Italien nach Spanien; the other über die Region des Don u. der Volga, u. die grossen Ebnen der Donau u. thence penetrating to the borders of the Ocean. Sie müssen den Continent lang occupirt haben, bevor sie nach Grossbritannien u. dort lang angesiedelt gewesen sein, bevor sie nach Irland übersetzen, denn die Meerbarrière, die die Römer trotz ihrer Flotten von Irland abhielt, muss noch grösseres obstacle gebildet haben for canoes gemacht aus dem trunk of a big tree. [306, 307]

[Ch. IX] Die neolithischen Bewohner Grossbritanniens sind iberischer Race.

Die researches von Thurnam u. Davis , Wilson, Busk etc über die buried skeletons der Neolithiker – met with in the alluvia and peat -mosses – offenbaren dass die population der British islands uniform in charackter während des ganzen neolithic age. Sie waren kleiner Statur, 5 Fuss 5 Zoll hoch (nach Dr Thurnam) im Durchschnitt; skulls of fair average capacity, of the long or oval type. ⦗the length being due to a development of the back of the head, termed by Dr Broca „ dolichocephalie occipitale“, as distinguished from the „dolichocephalie frontale“ of other races⦘ The outline of the face was oval, the supraciliary ridges being less strongly marked than in the round skulls, the upper and lower jaws small, and the lower part of the face not projecting beyond a vertical line dropped from the forehead (orthognathic); the nose aquiline u. die forehead low as compared with that of the round skulls. Skulls mit diesen Characteren described by Huxley u. Wilson von vielen places in Schottland; ditto they occur in neolithic tombs in England, Wales u. Ireland, so dass nicht zweifelhaft, dass alle British Isles von Anfang bis Ende der neolithic period bewohnt durch die same small race in the same stage of culture. In Schottld it is identical with the people of (kumbecephalic) boat-shaped skulls of Prof. Wilson u. in Irland by those from chambered tombs, peatmosses u. river deposits, described by Huxley as belonging to the river-bed type, u. v. Dr Thurnam to that of the „long barrows“. Cf. p. 312 the long skull of Neolithic age, from chambered tomb, Long Barrow, Rodmarton u. the Broad Skull of Bronze age, Round Barrow, Gristhorpe (Yorkshire). The same habits of life, common to a tribe or race of rude civilisation, coupled with comparative purity of blood, certainly produced a greater uniformity in the shape of the head, than that which we observe amongst ourselves. [309–313]

Range on the Continent: Belgium, France, and Spain. Traces dieser small men in numerous interments in chambered tombs and caves in Belgium u. France, Spain, Gibraltar, also West of the Rhine and North of the Alps. Virchow hat in the peat bogs of North Germany u. of Denmark skulls of the same type gefunden, bearing a closer resemblance to those of the Basques than of any other race. [313, 314]

These neolithic small men Iberians. numerous skulls from Basque cemeteries. Dr. Broca bewiesen: the real Basque stock small in stature, dark in complexion, black hair u. eyes, a long head; dies small dark-haired people identical with the ancient Iberians of history , liessen ihren name in the Iberian peninsula as a mark of their former dominion in the west; the neolithic inhabitants of the British isles belong to the same non-Aryan section of mankind as the Basques, in ancient times spread through Spain as far to the South as the pillars of Hercules, u. so weit nordöstlich as Germany u. Denmark. [314, 315]

Celtic Invasion of Gaul and Spain in the neolithic age. Während Iberic population of the Brit. Isles frei blieb v. Contact mit other races während des ganzen Neolithic age, stosst zusammen auf Continent mit ihnen new set of men, bigger, averaging, for the adult male, 5 feet, 8.4 inches in height (Dr. Thurnam ); the skulls broad or round (brachycephalic), the supra-occipital tuberosity or „probole“ prominent, the parieto-occipital region often flattened, the supraciliary ridges more strongly marked than in the oval skulls. The face statt oval ist angular, or lozenge-shaped; upper and lower jaws so largely developed and projected so far beyond the vertical line dropped from the forehead, that Huxley calls them macrognathic; ihre foreheads high, broad, and expanded. Remains davon in caves u. tombs in Belgium, France, Spain show dass diese tall race occupied these regions in the Neolithic ages u. dass sie mit der small dark race dwelt side by side zusammen, in France, shown durch die occurrence of the two forms of skull, with all the intermediate varieties, in chambered tombs and sepulchral caves. Dieser new invader sind die Celtae of history (Huxley u. Thurnam), with tall stature, light hair u. fierce blue eyes. Die Belgae auch tall u. fair, aber ihre exact relation to the Celtic or Teutonic tribes is uncertain. [315, 316]

Historical Evidence of Iberic and Celtic Races in Spain and Gaul.

Seit historischer Zeit Spanien in possession dieser 2 races, Iberians in Northwestern Region, u. Celts or Gauls in broad band südlich v. Pyrenäen entlang den Gestaden des Mittelmeers, nach Ephorus u. Eratosthenes bis Cadiz od. Gadeira (μέχρι Γαδείρων) u. forming isolated settlements also in Portugal. Bei ihrem histor. Auftreten bereits Mischung zwischen beiden – die Celt-Iberi of Castile, scheidend die reinen Iberier des Westens von den reinen Celten im Osten; die iberische Bevölkerung so überwiegend (der Zahl nach), dass sie der ganzen Insel ihren Namen gab, obgleich sie nicht länger masters des Districts best known to the Phoenicians and ancient Greeks on the side of the Mediterranean. Here auch Ligurians nach Thucydides . In the North the Vascones, then as now, held the Basque provinces of Spain.

Gaul: Iberia believed by the ancient Greeks to have extended jenseits der Pyrenäen bis an Rhone ( Strabo III, 166); nach Scyllax the Ligurians u. mixed Iberians (Ἴβηρες μιγάδες) dwelt on the shores des Mittelmeers von Mündung der Rhone bis Emporium in Spain . Im Nordwest bis zum Ocean, aber its northern frontier undefined (wegen ungenügender geograph. Kenntnisse der Griechen). In the time of Strabo … the Pyrenees northern boundary of Iberia.

Als Caesar Gallien eroberte, besassen die iberischen Aquitanier die Region bounded by the Garonne (Garumna) , den Cevennen u. den Pyrenäen. Augustus fügte zu Aquitania hinzu die 14 tribes inhabiting the district zwischen Garonne u. Loire (Liger), wahrscheinlich weil sie mehr stammverwandt den Aquitani als den Celtae; Dr. Broca betrachtet selbe als mixed race wie die Celtiberer v. Spanien. Auch ethnologische Verbindung zwischen Aquitania u. Brittany (Armorica) ⦗ Plinius : IV, 17. „Aquitania Armorica ante dicta“ ; Plinius bewahrheit durch Broca’s map of the stature and complexion of the peoples in France. Die Celtae occupied the region von Loire bis Seine u. sie waren masters von dem country v. den Grenzen Aquitaniens bis in’s Thal der Rhone being conterminous mit den Celts of Spain. So die Southwestern districts of France u. Spain occupied by Iberian population, represented by the small dark Basques, während die Celtic peoples bewohnten die Gegend des valley der Seine, durch Central Frankreich ins valley der Rhone u. über die eastern Pyrenäen bis in’s südliche Spanien. [317–320]

The older, i. e. Iberic Race in Retreat.

Der westwards retreat der Iberer von Rhone (Strabo ) bis nach den Pyrenäen, zeigt pressure of invasion from the East ⦗vor den Tagen Strabo’s⦘. Bei Beginn der historischen Zeit nehmen sie bedeutenderen Platz in Europa ein als [in] späteren [Zeiten], aber geringeren als in Neolithic age wo sie lived nordöstlich bis zum Rhein. Innerhalb des Neolithic age, lange before the dawn of history, Invasion of the Regions west of the Rhine [durch die Kelten] ⦗die dortigen Iberer weiter nach south-west treibend⦘. In Caesar’s Zeiten besassen die Belgae das Land von Seine u. Marne bis Schelde (Scaldis) u. pressten auf die Celtae, mit denen sie probably closely related in language u. physique; sie selbst, die Belgae, in their turn, pushed to the West by the advance of the Germans into the Rhine provinces. The Neolithic aborigines are in the West; u. die relative positions of Iberians, Celts, Belgae u. Germans mark their relative antiquity in Europe. [320, 321]

Historic Evidence as to Iberic and Celtic Peoples in Britany.

Dieselben elements of population befinden sich in Britain in denselben relative positions [as in Gaul] . Celts overrun – having crossed the Channel – the greater portion of Britain until the Silures ( Tacitus. Agricola, XI), die Tacitus mit den Iberians identificirt, were left only in the fastnesses die später refuge der Welsh (Celten) gegen die English invaders; ebenso die Belgae on the rear of the Celts, u. take possession of the Pars Maritima ( Caesar, V, 12 ) or southern counties of England. Der unsettled state des Landes, als Caesar in Britain erschien, due to the struggles then going on between Celtae u. Belgae. Mit dem Einfall der Germanic tribes in England, sie forced back Celten u. Belgier auf die Iberians, ever pressing the latter to the West, bis wo Ocean Grenze setzt. [321, 322]

Relations of Iberians to Ligurians and Etruskans.

Vor der Invasion Galliens durch die Celten dwelt Ligurians im District um Marseilles, held die region zwischen river Padus (Po) u. Gulf of Genua bis zur westlichen Grenze von Etrurien u. extended entlang der Küste des Mittelmeers bis zu den Pyrenäen, i. e. über das area included in the name of Iberia in its more ancient sense; left their trace in dem Namen Liger für Loire u. possibly in Britain (Armorica) in the name Lloegrians (Lloegr). Von den classical writers werden sie als den Iberern ähnlich beschrieben, ditto small stature u. swarthy complexion, related to the Iberiern, wie Frank zu Goth etc, belong to the same non-Aryan branch der human race. Keineswegs impossible, dass die small swarthy Etruskans, deren Empire, in the earliest time recorded by history, extended North of the Alps into Tyrol u. die ditto in Besitz der ganzen Lombardei, belong to the same non-Aryan stock, since they were conterminous and driven away from their old possessions by the same invaders. Wie die Celten pouring down durch Central France die Ligurier schieden von den Iberiern, so they poured über die Alpenpässe (Alpes Juliennes) scheidend die Etrusker v. Rhätien u. Noricum von denen of Etruria proper. Die Iberians of France u. Spain, the Silures of Wales, the Ligures of Southern Gaul u. Northern Italy u. die small dark Etruskans sind ethnological islands isolated by successive invasions, pointing out that if we could get deep enough in the past time ganz Europa nur bewohnt war by a swarthy non-Aryan population. [322, 323]

The Iberic Element in the present Population of Spain.

Das Iberic element in the population of Spain has contributed to the long-headedness of the modern Spaniard, obgleich dieser Character partly derived sein kann v. Gothen u. Mauren. Die Basques des Northwest, protected from attack by their inaccessible country, haben die race characters in grösster Reinheit erhalten. Die Goths contributed zu fair or „xanthochroic“ characters des modern Spaniard, so die Mauren zu deren dark complexions and lithe active forms. Zwischen Mauren u. Iberiern keine grosse physische Differenz; wahrscheinlich closely allied together u. connected mit Berbers of Northern Africa, considered by Prof. Busk to belong to the same stock as the Iberians. [323, 324]

Iberic, Celtic and other Elements in the Population of France.

Dr. Broca’s Maps ⦗Mém. Société Anthrop. de Paris. I u. III.⦘ based on the army returns for each department v. 1831–1860; zeigen the number of exemptions per 1000 conscripts weil unter dem normalen Mass der Höhe von 1.56 metres = 5 feet 1½ inches; u. intimate relation of stature to the prevalent complexion: following table of exemption per 1000 conscripts in den départements noirs (black hair and eyes), départements gris (brown hair mit gray or brown eyes) u. départements blancs (light complexion u. eyes):

hence the swarthy inhabitants in present France the shortest, and the fair the tallest. Die „dépt. noirs“ mainly centred in the old province of Aquitania of Augustus ; diese characters handed down v. den Ancient Aquitani or Basques (Aquitani, Auski (Auch), Eusques, Basques (Vascones) mit verhältnissmässig little change durch infusion of new blood seit Zeit der röm. Erobrung v. Gallien. In Caesar’s Aquitania – open u. defenceless country – has maximum of change taken place. Von den 8 Départements, worin jetzt getheilt, präsentirt nur das der Landes the Basque characters, preserved von invasion durch seine vast stretches of sand .

Enormous preponderance of Basque characters in district zwischen Garonne u. Loire: v. den 28 departments hier 21 belonging to the dépts. noirs (of Broca’s).

Die 5 départements of Loire inférieure, Vendée, Maine et Loire, Deux Sèvres u. Charente Inférieure, wo prevailing population of moderate stature, brown hair u. gray or brown eyes , lie on seaboard open to invasion, u. die 6 Départements „gris“, südlich v. Garonne mark the settlements of the fair-haired Visigoths, Franks u. English, die masters waren dieser country v. a.d. 419 to the present day. Die Gothen nahmen ⅔ des Landes u. ⅓ der slaves der eingebornen proprietors. Diese departments nun occupied by a Celt-Ibero-Teutonic people, whose physique intermediate zwischen Siegern u. Besiegten.

Ausserhalb der Grenzen Aquitaniens iberisches blood asserts itself in the swarthy small inhabitants of Bretagne; dann östlich Dépt. de l’Ardèche, südlich in Département Aude u. Département Ariège . Armoricans (Bretagne) zeichneten sich aus durch their coherence u. Widerstand gegen die teutonic invaders; resisted Clovis , schliesslich »an honourable and equal union« mit fränk. Reich. Wahrscheinlich gehörte Armorica zum alten Iberia; doch auch während des Conquest der British Islands durch English , the defeated Britons emigrated in considerable numbers to Bretagne (»u. sie selbst, to some extent, of Iberian derivation«).

Die broadness of skull, predominating in the „départements noirs et gris“ nach Broca a character derived from the Celts, zus. mit andern characters not found in the small, dark, typical Spanish Basques.

The ancient Ligurians represented by the dark small inhabitants of the Hautes et Basses Alpes.

Wie Aquitania des Augustus centre der Iberian population in France, so Belgic Gaul the headquarters of the tall, fair-haired element; the ancient Belgae, considered by Broca u. William Edwards als identic mit den Kymri od. Cimbri; die Germanen drückten die Belgae nach Westen u. in die central u. southern parts of France . – The intermediate part of Celtic Gaul occupied theils by fair tall peoples, who may be of Celtic, Belgic or Teutonic ancestry, aber hauptsächlich durch gray-eyed, brown-haired race of moderate stature, natural result der fusion zwischen tall fair u. small dark races; dies (nach Broca) the result [of the union] of the Celt with the Iberian and constituting the Celtae of Caesar as distinguished from the Belgae.

Die ancient Celts ⦗u. sie haben physical differences von den present inhabitants of Celtic Gaul⦘ known to the Greeks and Romans – the hordes that invaded ancient Greece u. Italy – were on the move, daher of comparatively pure race, während der modern Celt the result of the conquerors dwelling side by side with the conquered in the same country for unknown number of centuries. Dass this fusion of races was going on in the earliest times recorded in Spanish or Gaulish history zeigt der use der terms: Ιβηρες μυγαδες, Κελτο-Λιγυρες, Κελτ-Ιβηρες. Plutarch (life of Aemilius Paulus VI) spricht v. den Ligures in Südgallien as mingled with the Gauls u. den Iberians living by the shores of the Mediterranean in Südgallien. [324–330]

Iberic element in British Isles:

⦗ Huxley : Journal Ethnol. Soc. London. II, 4, p. 382: On the Ethnology of Britain ⦘ traceable in different areas affording refuge to the peoples in possession of the country before the invasion of the English. Resemblance zwischen den Silures u. Iberians schon remarked by Tacitus ; dies gilt heut zu Tag auch von dem small swarthy Welshman mit long head u. Iberian physique; der broadheaded dark Welshman identisch mit dem broadheaded dark Frenchman u. das Welsh people principally Celtic and Iberic, jede intermediate variety zwischen den 2 being represented. Die Silures nicht länger a compact ethnological island, sind dispersed u. mingled mit andren races, English u. Celtish.

In Schottland the dark Highlander u. in Irland the black Celts to the West of the Shannon still mit Iberian characteristics, crossed with Celtic, Danish, Norse, English blood. ⦗Nach Huxley die tall, longheaded, dark u. red-haired men (der Highlands) v. Scandinavian, u. die tall, long-headed fair men of Low German origin; both these intermingled mit der older Celtic population of Wales, Irld, Scotld, innerhalb der historic period.⦘

Bis jetzt also strange persistence of the Iberic race. [330, 331]

Witness of Language:

Professor Sayce (Journal anthropol. Inst. vol. V. Part I p. 26) „language cannot be the test of race at all, but only of social contact … Exceptional the stereotyped families of Aryan, Semitic and Turanian speech. Savage and barbarous dialects in a constant state of flux and change, while conquest, migration etc occasion the borrowing of new languages, u. the loss of the old ones … Das älteste Basque, womit wir acquainted, nicht früher als seit 3 od. 4 Jahrhdte back; früher there was no literature u. die changes [undergone] by languages other than literary astonishingly rapid u. extensive … Strabo (III) states that the Iberians had many different dialects u. several different alphabets. This points to want of intercourse … doch must have been general resemblance, da Strabo (book IV) says diese (spanish-iberischen) languages were like the idioms of Aquitania, in contradistinction to those of Celtic Gaul. The modern French Basque dialects not descended from any of those of Aquitania, da their speakers first entered France after the fall of the Roman Empire, aber they would be later descendants of some cognate dialect or dialects. Basque … the sole survivor of the Iberian family of speech displaced by the Keltic invaders. …“ the non-Aryan tongue, spoken by the neolithic aborigines of Britain obliterated durch „the dissolving action of time“. Selbst also, wenn no Basque roots in the Celtic languages of the British Isles beweist dies nichts as to origin der small dark peoples of Wales, Scotland, Ireland. [331–334]

Nach Abbé’s Inchauspé (Matériaux. 1875) philolog. inquiries into the dialects of the Pyrenees the Basque names for cutting tools:

Aizcora ⦗(of aitz (aitza, atcha) a stone u. gora (high, lifted up) = stone mounted in a handle)⦘ for: Axe.

Aitzurra, Pick. ⦗gebildtet von aitz (stone) u. urra (tear asunder) = a stone to tear in sunder the earth⦘

Aizttoa – Knife. ⦗v. aitz und ttoa a diminutive = a little stone⦘

Aizturrac – Scissors ⦗aizturrac aus aiztto (a small stone or knife) u. urra, i. e. „little stones (the final c marking the plural) for tearing asunder“ in contradistinction to Aitzurra or a stone for tearing asunder – i. e. a great stone⦘

Diese Worte mit Ausnahme von Aizttoa (confined to the valley of Roncal in Spanish Navarre) used by the Basque speaking peoples of France and Spain. [334]

Survivals from Neolithic Age:

Principal domestic animals and cereals and many of the European fruits; Iberic u. Celtic peoples.

The Polished Stone axes gradually supplanted for purposes of every day use by better implements of Bronze, wurden schliesslich religiöse Gegenstände: Hiessen thunderbolts ⦗u. sollten allerlei wunderthätige Eigenschaften besitzen⦘ im Mittelalter in Italy, France . In Germany, Scandinavia hiessen sie Thor’s hammers (Thor’s viggar). In Greece wurden the smaller ones used as amulets u. imitations davon made in sardonyx u. carnelian. Selbst einige der larger ones have been perforated for suspension. – Flintarrowheads haben also a superstitious value: heissen in this country elf-darts; ihre form still preserved in carnelian necklaces used by the Bosnian peasantry; manchmal they form the central pendant der magnificent necklaces found in den Etruscan tombs. – The flint flake, universally used as a knife in the Neolithic age, used by the Egyptians for making the first incision in the body of the dead for purposes of embalming u. by the Israelites in circumcision; besonders closely aber related with the rites of burial etc. Aus den Fünden in Gräbern ergiebt sich dass flintflakes used in burial ceremonies in the Romano-British age bis 4t Jhd p. Chr. u. in France noch unter den Merovingern.

Die Neolithic civilisation spread over Northern Africa, the whole of Europe and Asia, the islands of the Pacific, and the Americas u. lingered in remote places bis zur introduction of iron in 19th century. In denTagen des Captain Cook in nearly all the islands of the Pacific. [335–337]

Superstitions handed down from the Stone Age.

In neolithic ages the tombs were the habitations of the death , where they were supposed to live; [this superstition] current in Europe from that remote age to the present time. – Some of the stones composing the tombs in Ireland u. Britain, Prussia, Scandinavia, Iceland, Pyrenees etc mit small round holes ⦗„marmites du diable“ „Teufelssteine“ , elfstones etc⦘ intended for offerings to the souls of the dead etc. [338, 339]

Also continuity between the Neolithic age u. the present day unbroken. Die section der small dark non-Aryan farmers u. herdsmen, die v. Central Asien nach Europa, spread over Gaul, Spain, British islands , only known to us as the Iberic aborigines; outside [those limits], traces der Iberic peoples in Sicilien, Sardinien, Nordafrika; left their mark in Asia Minor wo Iberia (= Georgia) wie die Gauls left their name in Galatia (modern Anatolia), south of the Aladag Mountains. Iberic peoples driven from region east of the Rhine durch Celts, diese durch Belgae, diese durch Germans, diese durch Slaves. [340, 341]

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1. Text nach MEGAdigital (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), MEGA² IV/27, Lizenz CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/); der editorische Apparat der MEGA ist nicht wiedergegeben. ↩